Troubleshooting non-infectious peritoneal dialysis issues.
Peritoneal dialysis is commonly preformed by patients and their caregiers in the home, in nursing homes, and in both acute and rehabilitation hospitals. The success of the therapy requires that the nurse overseeing the care of the patient on peritoneal dialysis in the acute, sub-acute, and chronic settings has the skills and knowledge to identify specific non-infectious issues, choose an appropriate and effective intervention activity, document the findings and outcomes, and educate the patient to assist in the resolution of the non-infectious issues, and avoid future recurrence. This, article reviews the most common non-infectious complications that occur in patients on peritoneal dialysis and discusses an organized clinical process to troubleshoot the issues and achieve the desired clinical outcomes.Peritoneal dialysis (PD) has evolved from a procedure that used non-disconnect tubings and glass bottles (Gokal, 2000). In the past two decades, advances in technology have occurred, including disconnect continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) systems (1980s), new peritoneal catheter designs (1980s-1990s) (Keane et al., 2000), mad the exponential increase in the use of automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) (1990s-2000s) (Mehrotra & Nolph, 2000). The technical improvements that occurred in the early years of PD primarily impacted the reduction of infection (Keane et al., 2000).
In a recent study that examined greater than 30,000 patients initiating PD from 1999 to 2001, Guo and Mujais (2003) found that the majority of patients chose APD (59% 66%) over CAPD as their modality of choice. This trend demonstrates that in the United States, APD is becoming the mode of choice for PD. Guo and Mujais (2003) also observed that technique success was found to be higher in patients on APD than for patients on CAPD (see Figure 1). This was most apparent in the first year of dialysis. The authors further identified that the transfer rates to hemodialysis (HD) for patients on CAPD was highest in the first 6 months on the therapy. Guo and Mujais suggest that this "period of vunerability to technique failure may need to become a focus of interventional scrutiny" (Guo & Mujais (2003, p. S-6). Their observation is significant as the PD community strives to improve technique success and patient outcomes. If a patient leaves PD as a result of a transfer to HD or death, it is regarded as a technique failure (Guo & Mujais, 2003). Trans plantation is usually not included in data for technique failure (Mehrotra & Nolph, 2000). For the pro-pose of discussion in this article, PD technique failure will include transfer out of PD to HD only regardless of the reasons for transfer. PD technique survival is defined as the time that a patient will stay on PD vs. a transfer to HD. Some examples of reasons for transfer from PD to HD can be seen in Table 1.
[FIGURE OMITTED 1]
Guo and Mujais (2003) examined the effect of PD center size, mad found that as the dialysis center's percentage of patients starting dialysis on PD increased, technique failure rates decreased significantly. Centers that treated less than 20 patients had a higher rate of technique failure than programs with more than 20 patients. Shetty and Oreopoulos (2000) stated that PD programs that consistently manage 20 or more patients on PD have a better opportunity for the medical and nursing staff to gain experience in the therapy, be more familiar with the therapy innovations, and, therefore, be better able to support the patient on PD successfully. This illustrates how centers with less experience may have more challenges with providing optimat care for the patient on PD, thereby affecting patient outcomes.
Patient and/or caregiver training can have a critical impact on the clinical outcomes of a patient on PD. Keene et al. (2000) identified excellent patient education as a key component in improving peritonitis rates. When training patients on PD based on adult learning principles, Hall et al. (2004) were able to demonstrate improved patient outcomes. These positive outcomes included significant improvements ha peritonitis rates, normotensive blood pressure, maintaining target weight, higher KTV results, and fewer hospitalizations (Hall et al., 2004). In another study, Borg, Shetty, Williams, and Faber (2003) incorporated consistent patient retraining at 6 month intervals into their multifaceted improvement program to achieve a five-fold reduction in peritonitis.
Today, PD is a renal replacement therapy performed daily by thousands of patients or their caregivers in their places of residence. The United States Renal Data System (2003) identified that 26,510 patients were on PD in 2001. In a recent multi center study comparing patient satisfaction, 6.56 patients rated their dialysis care for PD and HD 7 weeks after starting dialysis. Eighty five percent (8.5%) of patients on PD reported their overall dialysis care to be excellent verses a 56% rating by patients receiving HD. The researchers concluded that clinicians should provide patients information about the option of PD (Rubin et al., 2004).
Baxter Healthcare Corporation's On Call Program is a data resource tool that tracks PD patient status over time, trends patient outcomes, and allows for program comparisons against the national Baxter average for quality improvement (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, 2003). In 2003, the On Call program data for the year identified that for those patients who transferred from PD to HD, non-infectious catheter complications accounted for 16% of the patient transfers, 9% resulted from peritoneal catheter infections and 21% from peritonitis (see Figure 2) (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, 2003). Non-infectious catheter complications include, for example, a nonfunctioning access (obstruction, migration, pulled out, removed), irreparable damage to the peritoneal catheter, or unresolved leaks (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, 2003). While peritonitis and exit site infections are frequently reported causes of technique failure, non-infectious issues are a common clinical focus in supporting the care of patients on PD. Patients on PD may experience a mechanical, system, access, or technical problem, often minor, frequently correctable, and possibly preventable. The minor technical issues are often resolved by the patient/caregiver, never reported, mad therefore not captured in facility data and tracking systems.
Non-infectious issues are frequently resolved when the knowledge of the PD system and procedures are understood. Troubleshooting the system includes evaluating the patient, the peritoneal catheter access, and the PD equipment that is being used to deliver the treatment. Occasionally, issues occur that cannot be resolved and require interruption of the therapy (Gokal et al., 1998).
Organanized Clinical Process Developed
The identification and resolution of non-infectious issues for PD require an organized clinical process to achieve the desired clinical outcomes. To assist in the troubleshooting of PD related non-infections issues, the following pathways (see Pathway Charts) consist of four components:
Key assessments: Identify major clinical findings.
Key activities: Identify key activities to obtain desired outcome.
Patient education: Provide patient/caregiver with the necessary education and/or tools to achieve the desired outcome.
Outcomes assessment: Use the continuous quality improvement process to track and trend to monitor and improve clinical outcomes.
Conclusion
By using these pathways as a guideline, PD nurses will have greatly increased their knowledge of the PD system and procedures. Thus, skills for identifying and resolving noninfectious issues related to PD therapy have improved while patient care has been greatly enhanced.
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Abdominal Discomfort Related to Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) During Fluid Inflow, Outflow or Dwell
Etiology: Noncatheter-Related: Intra-abdominal pressure increases in proportion to the volume of peritoneal dialysis (PD) fluid instilled into the peritoneal cavity (Bargman, 2000, p. 609). Abdominal discomfort due to distention is commonly seen when starting PD or increasing dialysis still volume. Rapid inflow of dialysis fluid, dialysis solution temperature, acidic PH of dialysis solutions, hypertonic solutions, and peritonitis are some of the causes seen in this patient population (Prowant, 2001).
Catheter-Related: Catheter-related pain may result when the catheter presses on the abdominal organs. Catheter-associated discomfort commonly occurs when PD catheter is first used (56%-75% of patients) (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000, p. 330). This often presents as pain or cramping at the end of drain when PD is initiated and usually resolves after a few months (Boeschoten, 2000). This effect is more common when the intraperitoneal portion of the catheter is straight than when a coiled tip catheter is used (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000, p. 319). Rectal pain can also occur with pressure from the PD catheter and when the intraperitoneal segment of catheter is too long (Prowant, 2001). Omental wrapping of the catheter may be indicated when catheter outflow pain is present (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000).
Indications: Patient complaint of epigastic distention, nausea, vomiting (Bargman, 2000, p. 621), pain, or cramping with infusion of new dialysis solution or during drain or continuous pain during dwell.
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Back Pain
Etiology: Altered spinal mechanics can result when dialysis fluid is instilled into the peritoneal cavity in the patient with weak abdominal muscle tone, poor posture, poor nutrition, or preexisting neuromuscular and skeletal diseases. Lumbar lordosis is amplified and the center of gravity is pushed forward (Prowant, 2001, p. 367).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Pneumoperitoneum (Shoulder Pain)
Etiology: Pain related to free air under the diaphragm. This can occur in PD patients when air is infused into the peritoneum along with dialysis solution if tubing is not properly primed during the procedure. It can also result due to infusion pressure from a malpositioned PD catheter. When a PD patient presents with abdominal pain as well, a bowl perforation should be ruled out (Prowant, 2001).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Leakage
Etiology. Dialysis fluid leaks from the peritoneal cavity into the abdominal wall, interstitial space with or without genital edema or infrequently into the pleural space
Early Leaks: Commonly presents as fluid drainage at the exit site or wound but can present as subcutaneous leak (Gokal et al.,1998), genital, scrotal, or penile edema (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, PD Catheter & Complications Management, 2001). Occurrence is less frequent when the PD catheter is placed through the rectus muscle (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000, p. 349). Patients at risk include patients with poor tissue healing, previous abdominal surgeries, and hernias as well as obese patients (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, 2001).
Late Leaks: Can occur months to years after the initiation of PD and present acutely subsequent to coughing, straining, or heavy lifting or chronically as a volume overload with decreased ultrafiltration and possibly a subcutaneous leak (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000, p. 349).
Troubleshooting Non-infectious PD Issues: Hydrothorax
Etiology: Dialysis fluid from the peritoneal cavity leaks into the pleural cavity due to a (congenital or traumatic) defect in diaphragm (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000) and increased peritoneal pressure (Bargman, 2000).
Indications: Dyspnea, chest pain, weight gain, decreased dialysis drain volumes, acute respiratory distress (Prowant, 2001). Unilateral pleural effusion in absence et volume overload and most common in women and on the right side (Bargman, 2000).
Troubleshooting Non-infectious PD Issues: Hernias
Etiology: Patients with congenital or acquired defect of or around the abdomen, increased abdominal pressure and abdominal wall tension due to the presence of dialysis fluid in the peritoneal cavity, leads to hernia formation in the PD population (Bargman, 2000, p. 609). The most common hernias are incisional, umbilical and inguinal. Incisional hernias occur more often when the PD catheter is placed through a midline approach rather than through the rectus muscle using a Para median approach (Gokal et al., 1998).
At Risk: Older female, multiparous patients and those who have had a leak after catheter placement or previous hernia repair (Bargman, 2000)
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Obstruction
Etiology: Most frequent in the first weeks following PD catheter placement (Gokal et al., 1998).
Inflow obstructions include: Mechanical blockage (clamps or kinks external or in subcutaneous tunnel) in transfer set; tubing or catheter; Post-implant clot/fibrin; Fibrin particularly with peritonitis; Catheter tip migration out of pelvis and catheter entrapment.
Outflow obstructions include: Mechanical blockage in transfer set or catheter, constipation, post- implantation blood clot or fibrin, fibrin, catheter tip migration out of the pelvis, catheter entrapment due to adhesions or omental wrap (Baxter Healthcare Corporation, 2001), and catheter hole occlusion due to pressure from adjacent organs (Gokal et al.,1998).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Hemoperitoneum Blood in PD Fluid
Etiology: As little as 2 ml of blood in a liter of dialysis drain fluid can cause a blood-tinged appearance. Menstruation is a regular and benign cause of blood in the peritoneal cavity (Bargman, 2000, p. 626). Bleeding in PD is usually "minimal to moderate and resolves spontaneously" (Prowant, 2001, p. 367). Post-catheter insertion, blood-tinged drain fluid is common and usually resolves following several PD exchanges, severe bleeding post-insertion is rare (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000).
Causes include: PD catheter insertion without hemostasis, abdominal trauma, vessel perforation, catheter irritation, menstruation, ovulation, ovarian cysts, post-colonoscopy, colonoscopy or enema; peritonitis; abdominal or systemic diseases (Prowant, 2001).
Indications: Dialysis drain fluid is pink to red colored in appearance, bleeding may also occur at the exit site following PD catheter insertion. Bleeding that increases or does nor resolve is atypical (Prowant, 2001).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Noninfectious Cloudy Effluent Peritoneal Eosinophilia
Etiology: Possible allergic response to PD catheter/plastic dialysis system, Intraperitoneal air introduced during laproscopic procedures or intraperintoneal air medications. Rarely due to fungal and parasitic infections. Peritonitis. PD fluid may appear cloudy due to fibrin presence or prolonged dwell (Leehey, Gandhi, & Daugirdas, 2001).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD issues: Hypervolemia
Etiology: Insufficient removal of fluid (ultrafiltration) related to: incorrect use of dextrose concentration, insufficient sodium removal, incorrect fluid balance calculations, (Prowant, 2001), incorrect dialysis prescription, patient compliance, mechanical problems of PD catheter, or peritoneal membrane related causes (Mujais et al., 2000). Excessive fluid intake and/or salt intake.
In Diabetic Patients: "Hyperglycemia can adversely affect the maintenance of an osmotic gradient across the peritoneal membrane" (Mujais et al., 2000).
Indications: Dialysis treatment records verify decreased ultrafiltration, weight gain, edema, dyspnea, elevated blood pressure, neck vein distention, pulmonary edema, congestive heart failure, tachycardia followed by bradycardia (Prowant, 2001).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Hypovolemia
Etiology: Excessive fluid removal related to inappropriate use of hypertonic solution, of too much sodium removal, or incorrect fluid balance calculations.
Diminished fluid and salt intake in chronic patients, strict restrictions of sodium and fluid in the acute population (Prowant, 2001).
Indications: Weight loss below baseline, weight below target weight, excessive fluid removal on dialysis treatment records, hypotension, postural hypotension, poor skin turgor, dry mucuous membranes, tachycardia, and negative fluid balance on acute patient intake and output documentation (Prowant, 2001).
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Organ Perforation during PD Catheter Insertion
Etiology: Perforation or laceration of internal organs during PD catheter insertion. Most common with acute rigid catheter placement (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000).
At Risk: Patients with bladder distention or abdominal distention secondary to paralytic ileus, bowel obstruction, or constipation and adhesions (Prowant, 2001).
Indications: Sudden, sharp or severe abdominal pain followed by watery diarrhea and poor dialysis drain. Dialysis drain solution may be cloudy, mixed with fecal matter and foul smelling (Twardowski & Nichols, 2000
Troubleshooting Noninfectious PD Issues: Catheter Adapter Disconnect or Fracture of Peritoneal Catheter
Etiology: Disconnect--Catheter adapter is loose or disconnects from the peritoneal catheter.
Damage to Peritoneal Catheter or Transfer Set--Inadvertent trauma to peritoneal catheter (cut, tear, or hole), unsuitable disinfectants and soaps are used on the catheter, peritoneal catheter is defective, use of an incorrect size catheter adapter, using a syringe or similar object to pierce the catheter to take a dialysis fluid sample results in permanent catheter perforation, an inappropriate clamp (such as a hemostat with teeth) is used to clamp the catheter (Prowant, 2001).
At Risk for: Patients who use soaps or cleaners on the catheter that are caustic to the catheter material, patients who routinely bend catheter in the same position, patients who use scissors on or near the catheter.
Indications: Patient notes wetness on clothing or catheter, Dialysis drain volume is decreased, catheter has a distinct wear line, a crack or hole is evident, catheter distal portion is stretched out (Prowant, 2001).
ANSWER/EVALUATION FORM Troubleshooting Non-Infectious Peritoneal Dialysis Issues Donna E. Maaz, BSN, RN, CNN
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Figure 2
The On-Call Baxter Program Data for 2004
Losses to Hemodialysis
Other Medical 15%
Psych 20%
Catheter Infection 9%
Catheter Problems 16%
Inadequacy 14%
Peritonitis 21%
Other 5%
Note: table made from pie chart.
Table 1
The On-Call Baxter Program Data for 2003
Patient Loss: Reason Codes for Losses to Hemodialysis
Peritonitis
Catheter Infection
Catheter Problems (non-Infectious)
* Leaks
* Obstruction
* Migration
* Pulled/Lost
* Removed/Malfunction
* Inadequate Dialysis
Ultrafiltration Failure/Fluid
Management Issues
Other Medical
* Physical Handicap
* Transfer to Hemodialysis Until
Transplant
* Inadequate Dietary Intake
* Low Serum Albumin
* Albumin Loss
* Respiratory Problems
* Cardiac Problems
* Diabetic Complications
* Cancer
* Stroke
* Coma
* Hernia
* Digestive Tract Problems
* Abdominal Surgeries
* Gained or Lost Too Much
Weight (not fluid related)
Key Assessments Key Activities
Observe dialysis exchange, For abdominal distention:
inflow and outflow:
* Treat constipation
* Monitor dialysis outflow * Decrease dialysis fluid fill
drainage (effluent) for volume when patient is
color and clarity upright
* Evaluate patient for the * Use larger dialysis fluid
frequency and degree of fill volumes in supine or
distention or discomfort partially reclining position
* Check dialysis solution (Gokal et al., 1998)
temperature * Consider automated
* Rule out peritonitis peritoneal dialysis (APD)
* Monitor and document the * Use weaker dextrose
dextrose % and the amount concentration when
of drain volume when the increasing dialysis fill
patient complains of volume, In acute dialysis
distention alternate dextrose if
necessary (Prowant, 2001,
p. 367)
* Pro-motility drugs may be
helpful (cisapride,
erythromycin) (Bargman,
2000, p.621)
Catheter related and
non-related:
* Change position during
infusion or drain
* Reduce dialysis infusion
rate (lower IV pole, close
transfer set clamp
partially)
* Ensure proper dialysis
temperature-warm dialysis
fluid to body temperature
* Leave small amount of
dialysis fluid in the
patient, Tidal PD
* Investigate PD catheter
position- Flat plate of
abdomen
* Reposition PD catheter if
unresolved
* For extreme conditions:
Intraperitoneal (IP)
xylocaine 1% or bicarbonate
may be considered
(Boeschoten, 2000, p. 395)
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
For Abdominal Distention: Data collection to include:
Instruct patient to: * Duration and degree of
discomfort
* Avoid upright positions * Interventions
during exchanges when * Adjustments to dialysis
initiating dialysis, supine prescription
when possible * Patient tolerance
* Avoid activities that * Medications prescribed and
increase intra-abdominal patient tolerance
pressure--including * Diagnostic tests and results
constipation and straining
(Uttley & Prowant, 2000,
p. 376)
* Eat during drain phase of
exchange
* Wear loose clothing with
waistbands or suspenders
* Eat frequent, smaller meals
* Avoid foods that decrease
esophageal sphincter control
(chocolate, alcohol)
(Bargman, 2000, p. 621)
Catheter related and
non-related:
Teach patient causes and
interventions:
* Rapid inflow-reduce
infusion rate
- Too rapid a transition to
larger dialysis fill
volumes-slowly increase
fill volumes
- Dialysis solution too warm
or too cold-warm to body
temperature
- Potential cause and
interventions for PD
catheter malposition
- Peritonitis-prevention
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Document pain or discomfort Identify high-risk patients
with altering patient
dialysis solution fill * Exercise, no straining
volumes * Good body mechanics
* APD with reduced volume
during the day as needed
* Avoid constipation
* Evaluation of
musculoskeletal system if
issue persists
* Refer to rheumatologist or
physiotherapist prn
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Instruct the patient: Data collection to include:
* To report pain or muscular * Duration and degree of
discomfort discomfort
* To increase dialysis * Adjustments to dialysis
solution volume when supine prescription or schedule
(especially new patient) * Interventions
* Consider APD * Patient tolerance
* Teach patient abdominal * Medications prescribed and
strengthening exercises. patient tolerance
Pelvic tilt exercises are * Diagnostic tests and
appropriate in patients results
on PD
* Correct posture to minimize
back strain (Bargman, 2000)
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Observe patient/caregiver's * Prime PD system according to
exchange procedure to manufacturer's instructions
verify adequate tubing * Rule out pain of cardiac
priming is included origin
* Patient complaint of * Assess for bowel perforation
shoulder pain * To remove air:
* Patient reports recent - Drain patient with
infusion of air during elevated hips, knee- chest
exchange procedure or Trendelenberg position
following a full volume
exchange
- A flat plate of the
abdomen to identify PD
catheter position and
identify free air in the
peritoneal cavity
- A chest x-ray will
identify the presence of
free air under the
diaphragm
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Proper priming procedure for Data collection to include:
PD system
* Diagnostic testing and
* For manual systems, always results
close clamps after infusion * Interventions
of solution * Results of interventions
* About positioning to remove
air during exchanges
* Avoid use of PD vented
systems (Prowant, 2001)
Key Assessments Key Activities
Indicators: Increase clinic visit frequency
* External fluid at wound or External leaks:
exit site
* Edema of abdomen/increased * Verify clear fluid at
girth incision or exit site
* Scrotal, penile or labial contains glucose, using
edema glucose test strip
* Decreased exchange drain * Document condition of exit
volume site, subcutaneous cuff,
* Decreased ultrafiltration tunnel and/or wound
* Weight gain * Alter dressing change
procedure to accommodate
increased fluid drainage
Subcutaneous leaks:
* Monitor girth
* Examine flank and back for
subcutaneous fluid
* Examine for scrotal, penile
or labial swelling
* Order/review abdominal (CT)
Diagnostic work-up:
* Peritoneography
* Abdominal fluoroscopy with
contrast
* Abdominal scintigraphy
Therapeutics:
Dialysis therapy:
* Initiate PD supine position,
using low volume exchanges
(500 to 1500 ml) prn
* If required, use
hemodialysis (HD) back up
for 1-2 weeks
In new patients who do not
require dialysis immediately:
* Delay PD for 2-3 weeks
* For External Leak, restart
PD with trained staff
Invasive steps:
* Persistent leaks may require
surgical repair
* Recurrent leaks may require
catheter replacement
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Alter dressing change Data Collection to Include:
procedure and frequency
* Type of catheter and
* Report physical changes insertion technique
indicating potential leak * Condition of exit/wound
* Alter dialysis regimen if * Condition of subcutaneous
required to lower cuff and tunnel
intra-abdominal pressure * Type of leak
following surgical * Diagnostic testing and
correction results
* Monitor for signs and * Interventions
symptoms of exit site * Results of Interventions
infection and peritonitis * Alteration in dialysis
* More frequent clinic visits prescription
are required for observation
Note: Reprinted with permission from Baxter Healthcare
Corportation (2001).
Key Assessments Key Activities
Signs and symptoms of Assess lung sounds
pleural effusion
* Observe for shortness of
* Cough or shortness of breath breath or cough especially
* Chest Pain supine
* Weight gain * Stopping PD may lead to
* Decreased dialysis drain resolution
volumes * Temporary HD for 2-4 weeks
* Small pleural effusion may may allow communication
be symptom free to seal
* Acute respiratory failure * Thoracentesis may be
* Unilateral pleural effusion indicated with tetracycline,
present on x-ray without talc, autologous blood or
volume overload fibrin glue for correction
* Glucose positive, low of the defect
protein, pleural fluid on * Surgical repair (Prowant,
thoracentesis 2001
* Isotope scanning to identify
pleural-peritoneal
communication
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Report physical changes Data collection to include:
indicating potential leak
* Alter dialysis regimen if * Type of leak
required * Diagnostic testing and
* More frequent clinic visits results
are required for observation * Interventions
* Response to interventions
Key Assessments Key Activities
Assess for swelling at Inspect and examine suspect
umbilicus, groin, scrotum, locations
labia or incision
* Surgical referral
* Evaluate for tenderness and * Schedule more frequent
inflammation follow-up
* Determine reducibility/
pain/size Therapeutics:
* If incisional, review
catheter placement procedure * All hernias ultimately
requires repair
* Following surgical repair
consider APD with no
daytime dialysis exchange
* Initiate supine,
intermittent low volume
peritoneal dialysis 2-4
weeks post-repair
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Minimize intra-abdominal Data collection to include:
pressure (straining, heavy
lifting, stair climbing, * Type of hernia
coughing, constipation) * Interventions
* Report increase in size of * Response to intervention
hernia or pain * Alterations in dialysis
* Following repair instruct prescription or schedule
patient to avoid cross
contamination of exit site
and wound dressings
* Observe for recurrence
Note: Reprinted with permission from Baxter Healthcare
Corportation (2001).
Key Assessments Key Activities
Observe dialysis exchange * Examine PD catheter
--fluid inflow and outflow (including the portion
beneath patient's garments),
Determine type of obstruction: transfer set and dialysis
equipment tubing for clamps
* One way (Outflow) or kinks.
obstruction: Fluid will
infuse but not drain Noninvasive steps:
* Two way obstruction: Fluid
does not infuse or drain * Eliminate kinks in transfer
* Inflow obstruction: Pain on set and catheter
inflow once compartment * Change body position
volume is exceeded * Correct constipation
(Mujais et al., 2000) * Obtain frontal and lateral
x-ray of abdomen to
visualize catheter and rule
out constipation
In case of fibrin-related
obstruction:
* Add heparin 500 to 2000 U/L
to dialysis each exchange
If unsuccessful:
* Instill fibrinolytic agent
into catheter
* Dislodge blockage (to be
performed only by
experienced PD personnel)
* Use a 50 ml syringe to
infuse heparinized dialysis
fluid or saline. Using
moderate pressure, instill
fluid into PD catheter then
withdraw slowly. ("push and
pull" maneuver)
Discontinue procedure if
patient notes pain or
cramping.
* Consider use of recombinant
tissue plasminogen activator
(tRA) (Sahini et al., 2000)
Invasive steps:
* Laparoscopy
* Fluoroscopy with stylet
manipulation or guided stiff
wire
* Open surgical repositioning
of catheter, partial
omentectomy or catheter
replacement (Baxter
Healthcare Corporation, 2001
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Tape and anchor catheter Data collection to include:
* Prevent constipation with
diet exercise, stool * Type of Obstruction
softeners * Diagnostic testing
* Position tubing to prevent * Etiology
kinking while sleeping on * Interventions
APD * Response to Interventions
* Provide patient/caregiver
with written troubleshooting
directions
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Observe dialysis exchange * For post-insertion blood
drain fluid for color and tinged dialysis outflow:
clarity * 200-1500 ml volume flush
* Rule out peritonitis with heparinized dialysis
* Obtain patient history, fluid or saline until drain
investigate potential causes is clear (Gokal et al.,
to include menstruation, 1998
recent enema, sigmoidoscopy, *Add heparin 500-1,000
colonoscopy, episode of U/L to maintain patency
abdominal trauma or (Gokal et al., 1998)
abdominal disease * Observe drain fluid color
with dialysis exchanges
* Document number of
days bleeding is noted
and color changes
* Check hematocrit (serum
and dialysis) as needed
* Consider investigating for
peritonitis or other acute
abdominal issue
(Prowant, 2001)
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Instruct women of Data collection to include:
reproductive age about the
potential for hemoperitoneum * Interventions
* Observe dialysis exchanges * Response to intervention
drain fluid for decreasing * Alterations in dialysis
color prescription or schedule
Teach patient to:
* Avoid heavy lifting/trauma
* Document frequency, duration
and treatment of bloody
effluent
* Heparin is not absorbed
through the peritoneum so
there is not an increased
risk for bleeding (Kobert &
Kronfol, 2001, p. 338)
* Bleeding, typically minimal
to moderate may resolve
spontaneously (Prowant,
2001)
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Cloudy effluent * Culture PD drain fluid
* Dialysis fluid cell count * Closely monitor patient
is low status
* WBC differential: * D/C intraperitoneal (IP)
Neutrophils <50% antibiotics (antibiotics are
Eosinophils >10% or not required) (Prowant, 2001
* Absence of abdominal pain, * Heparin when indicated
fever or other signs and * Persistent cases may require
symptoms of acute infection * Steroids/Antihistamines
* Occurs within first
3 months of PD
* Usually resolves
spontaneously in 2-6 weeks
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Educate patient on the signs Data collection to include:
and symptoms of infectious
peritonitis * Interventions
* Instruct patient to document * Response to interventions
drain fluid clarity each
exchange and report any
change in status
Key Assessments
Evaluate: Key Activities
* Weight (above target weight) * Use 2.5% or 4.25 % dextrose
* Vital signs exchanges --
* Serum glucose * Shorten dwell time.
* Lung sounds * Screen for reversible causes
* Edema status of fluid overload
* Cardiac status * If diabetic: control
* Decreased urinary output hyperglycemia with
* Dialysis treatment flow intraperitoneal and/or
sheets for ultra-filtration subcutaneous insulin
and dextrose concentration * Evaluate intake and output
used * Restrict sodium/fluid intake
* Accurate intake and output * Treat constipation
(I & O) * Verify catheter position
* Current antihypertensive and function
regimen * Reevaluate target weight
* Monitor weight closely
* Monitor vital signs
* Monitor cardiac and
respiratory status
* Reevaluate dialysis
prescription suitability for
peritoneal membrane category
* Use alternative osmotic
agent/ Icodextrin for long
dwell
* Consider routine use of loop
diuretics (Mujais et al.,
2000)
* Reevaluate peritoneal
membrane transport type if
not responding to
interventions
* Preserve residual renal
function (avoid nephrotoxic
agents like aminoglycosides,
nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs and
radio contrast dye (Mujais
et al., 2000)
* Preserve peritoneal membrane
function, prevent
peritonitis (Mujais et al.,
2000)
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Instruct patienVcaregiver Data Collection to include:
about causes of fluid
overload: * Interventions
* Response to interventions
Inadequate ultrafiltration * Alterations in dialysis
related to: prescription
* Decreased output
* Increased fluid intake
* Increased sodium intake
* Inappropriate dextrose
regimen for several
exchanges
* Decreased insensitive losses
secondary to seasonal
temperature changes
(Prowant, 2001)
Provide patient/caregiver with
written instructions for:
* Appropriate dextrose
concentration use according
to weight, blood pressure
and volume status
* Dietary counseling for salt
and fluid intake
* Signs and symptoms of
volume overload and
dehydration
* Instruct patient to document
dextrose use, weight changes
and symptoms on flow sheet.
* If diabetic: educate
patient on need to avoid
hyperglycemia
Key Assessments Key Activities
Evaluate: * Use 1.5 % dextrose exchanges
* Lengthen dwell times
* Weight (Below target weight) * Increase salt and fluid
* Vital signs intake (temporarily)
* Blood pressure sitting and * Measure I & O
standing * IV fluid and sodium replace
* Cardiac status for if necessary
tachycardia * Re-evaluate target weight
* Skin turgor * Document prescription
* Dialysis flow sheets for changes
ultra-filtration and * Monitor weight closely
dextrose usage * Monitor vital signs closely
* Accurate I&O * Reevaluate target weight
* Current anti hypertensive
regimen
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Instruct patient/caregiver Data collection to include:
about causes of dehydration
* Interventions
* Increased output * Response to interventions
(residual and dialysis * Alterations in dialysis
ultrafiltration) prescription
* Decreased fluid intake
* Decreased sodium intake
* Inappropriate dextrose
regimen for several
exchanges
* Increased insensitive losses
secondary to seasonal
temperature changes
(Prowant, 2001)
Provide patient/caregiver
with written instructions for:
* Appropriate dextrose
concentration use according
to weight, blood pressure
and volume status
* Dietary counseling for salt
and fluid intake
* Signs and symptoms of
dehydration
* Instruct patient to document
dextrose use, weight changes
and symptoms on flow sheet.
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Verify the presence of * Monitor vital signs
glucose in urine or feces * Discontinue peritoneal
with dipstick dialysis
* Diagnosis based on signs * Arrange surgical consult
and symptoms * Drain bladder if bladder
* Document condition perforation prn
(Prowant, 2001) * Antibiotic therapy
* Observe for peritonitis
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
* Provide patient with written Data collection to include:
preoperative and
postoperative instructions * Type of peritoneal catheter
* Arrange for preoperative * Intervention
bowel preparation * Type of perforation
* Provide emergency medical * Response to intervention
contact information * Patient outcome
Key Assessments Key Activities
* Observe for dialysis fluid For adapter disconnect or
leak from peritoneal catheter fracture:
catheter or transfer set
* Observe for peritonitis * Stop dialysis
* Initiate prophylactic * Clamp catheter proximal to
antibiotics damage
* If catheter length is
adequate, Use sterile
technique to:
* Disinfect catheter above
the damaged area
* Trim catheter above expanded
area on catheter or fracture
* Using sterile scissors trim
the catheter above the area
that is damaged or stretched
* Fit a sterile, new adapter
into the catheter (Prowant,
2001
* Attach transfer set to
adapter
If catheter portion is
marginal length:
* Repair with appropriate
manufacturer's repair kit
or catheter extension
Patient Education Outcomes Evaluation
Instruct patient to: Data collection to include:
* Stop dialysis * Type of peritoneal catheter
* Clamp catheter proximal to * Intervention
damaged spot * Type of perforation
* Cover area with sterile * Response to intervention
dressing * Patient outcome
* Go to clinic or emergency
room as soon as possible
Teach patients to:
* Secure catheter and
transfer set under clothing
avoiding sharp bends in
catheter
* Keep sharp objects and
tools away from catheter
* Avoid using unsuitable
disinfectants and soaps
on catheter
* Use only clamps provided
on catheter
References/Readings
Bargman, J. M. (2000). Non-infectious complications of peritoneal dialysis. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook (peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 609-646). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Baxter Healthcare Corporation. (2003). The On-Call Baxter Program Deerfield, IL: Baxter Healthcare Corporation.
Baxter Healthcare Corporation. (2001). Peritoneal dialysis catheter and complications Management. IL: Baxter Healthcare Corporation.
Boeschoten, E.W. (2000). Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, 86 K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 387-417). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Borg, D., Shelly, A, Williams, M., & Faber, D. (2003). Fivefold reduction in peritonitis using a multifaceted continuous quality initiative program. Advances in Peritoneal Dialysis, 19, 202-205.
Farina, J. (2004). Peritoneal dialysis and intraperitoneal insulin: How much? Nephrology Nursing Journal, 31(2), 225-226.
Fried, L, & Piraino, B. (2000). Peritonitis. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 545-564). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Gokal, R. (2000). History of peritoneal dialysis. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 1-17). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Gokal, R., Alexander, S., Ash, S., Chela, T.W., Danielson, A., Holmes, C., Jofee, P., Moncrief, J., Nichols, K., Piraino, B., Prowant, B., Slingeneyer, A., Stegmayr, B., Twardowski, Z., & Vas, S. (1998). Peritoneal catheters and exit-site practices toward optimum peritoneal access: 1998 update. Peritoneal Dialysis International, 18(1), 11-33.
Guo, A., & Mujais, S. (2003). Patient and technique survival on peritoneal dialysis in the United States: Evaluation in large incident cohorts. Kidney International, 64(Suppl. 88), S1-S10.
Leehey, D.J., Gandhi, V.C., & Daugirdas, J.T. (2001). Acute peritonitis and exit site infection. In J.T. Daugirdas, P.G. Blake & T.S. Ing (Eds), Handbook of dialysis (3rd ed., pp. 373-404). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Hall, G., Bogan, A., Dries, S., Duffy, A.M., Green, S., Kelley, K, Lizak, H., Nabut, J., Schinker, V., & Schwartz, N. (2004). New directions in peritoneal dialysis patient training. Nephrology Nursing Journal, 31(2), 149-163.
Keane, W.F., Bailie, G.R., Boeschoten, E., Gokal, R., Golpher, T.A., Holmes, C.J., Kawaguchi, Y., Piraino, B., Riella, M. ,& Vas, S. (2000). Adult peritoneal dialysis related peritonitis treatment recommendations: 2000 update. Peritoneal Dialysis International, 20(4), 396-411.
Mehrotra, R., & Nolph, K.D. (2000). Current status of peritoneal dialysis. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 19- 36). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Mujais, S., Nolph, K., Gokal, R., Blake, P., Burkart, J., Coles, G., Kawaguchi, Y., Kawanishi, H., Korbet, S., Krediet, R., Linholm, B., Oreopoulos, D., Rippe, B., & Selgas, R., (2000). Evaluation and management of ultrafiltration problems in peritoneal dialysis. Peritoneal Dialysis International 20, S5-S21.
Prowant, B.F. (2001). Peritoneal dialysis. In L. Lancaster (Ed.), ANNA core curriculum for nephrology nurses (4th ed., pp. 363-375). Pitman, NJ: American Nephrology Nurses' Association.
Rubin, H.R., Fink, N.E., Plantinga, PL.C., Sadler, J.H., Kliger, A.S. & Powe, N.R., (2004). Patient ratings of dialysis care with peritoneal dialysis vs hemodialysis. JAM& 29(6), 697-701
Sahani, M.M.,Boorgu, R., Ing, T.S., Mukhtar, K.N., & Popli, S. (2000). Tissue plasminogen activator coal effectively declot peritoneal dialysis catheters. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 36(3), 675.
Shetty, A., & Oreopoulos, D.G. (2000). February). Peritoneal dialysis: It's indications and contraindications. Dialysis & Transplantation, pp. 71-76.
Twardowski, Z.J., & Nichols, W.K. (2000). Peritoneal dialysis access and exit-site care including surgical aspects. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, R. Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 307-361). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
United States Renal Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Atlas of end-stage renal disease in the United States, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease. USRDS 2003 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, MD: United States Renal Data System.
Uttley, L. & Prowant, B.F. (2000). Organization of a peritoneal dialysis programme The nurse's role. In R. Gokal, R. Khanna, IL Th. Krediet, & K.D. Nolph (Eds.), Textbook of peritoneal dialysis (2nd ed., pp. 363-386). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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| Title Annotation: | Continuing Education |
|---|---|
| Author: | Maaz, Donna E. |
| Publication: | Nephrology Nursing Journal |
| Geographic Code: | 1USA |
| Date: | Sep 1, 2004 |
| Words: | 6051 |
| Previous Article: | Interviewing prospective patients for peritoneal dialysis: a five-step approach. |
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