Toxic plants in Prairie Gardens.
Plants are the original inventors of chemical warfare. During millions of years of evolution, they have had to cope with greedy, inconsiderate herbivores that robbed them of their resources and the fruits of their labours (literally). While plants capitalized on some of these interactions to their own benefit, for example to use animals for pollination and seed dispersal, in many other cases they had to devise ways of discouraging marauders and limiting damage if they were to survive. Although physical defenses (spines, thick cell walls, heavy coverings) provided some relief, the battleground moved into the chemical arena very early. Even the most primitive leafless vascular plants such as Psilotum are not helpless prey, but are loaded with nasty-tasting purgative phlobaphenes.Compared to animals, plants are biochemically advanced. Besides producing all of the molecules required for primary metabolism (respiration, photosynthesis, and protein, lipid and nucleic acid synthesis and breakdown), plants have developed an incredible array of convoluted metabolic pathways to produce thousands of secondary compounds that play a role in defence, storage and other functions (some common examples are listed in Table 1, next page). These substances may taste or smell bad, or better still, many provide a permanent solution by being toxic. Some, such as precocenes, which prevent juvenile insects from moulting into reproductive adults, mimic animal hormones and thus control pest populations. Other chemicals deter disease invaders (antimicrobial and antifungal agents), confer plant immunity (phytoalexins), discourage other plants from encroaching on the plant's personal space (allelopathic compounds), or are simply indigestible and, therefore, waste the herbivore's time and energy (e.g., inulin instead of starch in dahlia tubers). Plants have experimented with molecular structures in the most creative and ingenious ways, even devising ways to incorporate environmental toxins such as selenium and fluorine into organic compounds that are toxic to animals but not to the plants themselves.
To deal with different kinds of herbivores and feeding preferences, many plants have diversified their chemical arsenals by producing more than one type of toxin at the same time. The target varies. Compounds can be nerve, heart or liver poisons, may disable kidneys, may disrupt blood clotting or cause anemia, interfere with iodine metabolism, cause gastrointestinal rebellion, block key respiratory enzymes, act as carcinogens (e.g., furanocoumarins in bergamot oil, which has been banned from lotions by the European Union since 1995), or cause photosensitization when the animal is exposed to sunlight. In other cases, simple contact with the plant may produce severe allergic reactions and skin lesions. Every animal metabolic pathway has a plant compound that affects it. Many of these substances, accordingly, provide us with useful drugs and natural pest control products.
In our own role as herbivores, it is therefore important for us to be aware of potentially harmful plants, especially in our gardens. Toxins are almost impossible to avoid in our foods, and our bodies are able to handle small amounts of substances such as cyanide compounds in almonds or oxalic acid in spinach without visible ill-effect. However, injudicious consumption of large quantities can very quickly lead to toxicity. The threshold is a very fine line and depends on the individuals and their age, state of health, and sometimes gender, genetic make-up of both consumer and plant, and many other factors which are still unknown.
We also need to be aware that many medicinal plants used in herbal therapy may be toxic if: used in unsuitable dosages; stored or prepared incorrectly; the inappropriate plant part (or inappropriate stage of growth) is used; the plant has been cultivated under questionable conditions (e.g., heavy metals, nitrates, pesticides); or if it is used in combinations with certain other ingredients (drugs or food) which may interact. Of particular concern are herbal weight-loss preparations (e.g., Lamiaceae, some Euphorbiaceae), which may cause permanent liver damage even when immediate effects might not be apparent. Whether you are dosing yourself or you are using purchased, ready-made preparations, you must be cautious because in numerous cases, plants have been incorrectly identified or adulterated by suppliers. It is best to stay away from more exotic ethnic imports.
For some species, only certain parts may be toxic, as for example potatoes, tomatoes or asparagus. Or just a part of a plant may be toxic: in rhubarb, only the green part of the leaf is toxic due to soluble oxalates but the stalk contains much lower concentrations. Other plants may be toxic only at certain stages of their life cycle--for example, lettuce becomes toxic once it has bolted and started to flower, causing an illness known as lettuce opium poisoning (which has nothing to do with true opium, so don't get any ideas). The bitter compounds that develop at this stage give us some warning that it should not be eaten. Yet others may become toxic if grown under certain conditions. Good examples are spinach and chard, which should never be grown in soil richly fertilized with nitrogen, as they may accumulate enough toxic nitrates in the leaves to cause an illness called methemoglobinemia (in people) or nitrate toxicosis (in livestock). Some canned spinach has had to be recalled for this reason. Other reported nitrate accumulators include celery, beet, turnip, broccoli, sweet potato, lettuce, radish, cucumber, squash, sunflower and even corn. So it is wise never to overdo the chemical fertilizer or manure. Nitrate absorption is aggravated even more in plants that have been exposed to herbicides like 2,4-D or MCPA. Thus nitrate toxicosis in cattle can become a big problem in pastures that have been sprayed, where there is already a high amount of nitrogen in the soil.
Some plants may produce toxins depending on the genetic strain and environmental conditions. Prussic acid (cyanide) in lima beans may reach 0.3% in some strains from South America. Although Canada prohibits importation of lima beans with more than 0.02% prussic acid, small quantities of heritage seeds may still find their way into Canadian gardens undetected. Mediterranean peoples are especially susceptible to illness from fava bean consumption (a type of anemia called favism) because of a particular X-linked human gene.
Beet leaves may contain more oxalates than rhubarb leaves in some conditions (levels of 12% by weight have been reported), and it is impossible to predict how much is present in the plants from your particular garden at any given time, as toxin levels depend on variety of beet, age of the leaves, soil and light conditions, stress and so on. Irreversible silent liver and kidney damage are the rewards of frequent consumption, and may lead to fatal uremic shock (many traditional recipes still include beet leaves). Similarly, oxalic acid in sorrel (Rumex crispus) has resulted in human death after ingestion of 500 grams of leaves prepared as sorrel soup, and this plant is frequently responsible for death of sheep both here on the prairies and in Europe.
Many other plants that were used indiscriminately by our grandmothers (grandfathers hardly ever seemed to cook) have now been redlined as more information comes to light. Raw kidney bean seeds contain toxic lectins which fortunately are destroyed on cooking. These proteins cause pathological changes in the intestinal lining and inflammation of heart muscle; numerous cases of poisoning have been recorded in children and adults from batches of undercooked beans. Similarly, there are many recipes for green tomatoes: these should be consumed with caution and in moderation as they contain alkaloids with neurological and gastrointestinal effects designed to deter mammals from eating the fruit before the seeds are ready to be dispersed.
Plants that are poisonous to people are also often poisonous to livestock and other animals, but not necessarily vice versa. NEVER assume that because you see an animal or bird eating something, that it is safe for humans to eat. Squirrels, for example, often die from plant or mushroom poisoning in the wild. Contrary to popular myth, they DON'T know any better than we do. As any gardener knows, deer are often seen to eat toxic species (such as delphinium), even when food isn't especially scarce. Birds can safely eat many kinds of berries that are toxic for mammals, such as cotoneaster and yew. Bees can collect nectar from poisonous plants like rhododendron and azalea, which, although harmless for bees, yields poisonous honey for us. Sometimes however, plants which may seem harmless for us, such as onions, may prove fatal for dogs, cats and livestock, causing a type of lethal anemia. Similarly limonene in citrus oils is repellent and toxic to cats and many other animals; hence its use in animal deterrent products.
A good rule is don't eat or taste any plant with which you are unfamiliar. Also, supervise children in the garden and train them from an early age never to put leaves, berries or even flowers into their mouths. For instance, children have been poisoned by sucking nectar out of angel's trumpet flowers (Datura). Wash your hands after handling poisonous plants, or better still, wear gloves, and don't rub your eyes. Don't feed the discards from your garden to cattle, horses or pigs. It is amazing how many animals continue to die needlessly from being allowed to eat tomato and potato stalks, leafy beet tops, bolted lettuce and rhubarb leaves tossed "over the garden fence."
Don't use flowers and leaves from plants of which you are not sure to decorate food. Some lavishly illustrated cookbooks show food decked with poisonous flowers--while this makes for a prettier picture, it is not so pretty if you try to copy the picture and picture yourself afterwards in the emergency ward. Flowers which are generally thought to be edible include rose, nasturtium, giant hyssop (Agastache faeniculum), common hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium), bergamot, fennel, basil, chive, summer savory, marjoram, hop, various mint species, pot marigold, pinks (Dianthus), hollyhock, stocks (Matthiola), angelica, squash, dandelion, sunflower petals. Note that allergic reactions and unpredictable interactions with other food ingredients may affect certain individuals, therefore always use in moderation. Persons with diabetes, or liver or kidney ailments are especially susceptible to adverse reactions. Crystallized violets, a Victorian favorite, are not commonly seen now, owing to their tendency to cause diarrhea and cramps.
Table 2 (next page) lists some of the toxic plants that are commonly found in prairie gardens. For many plants, some parts have been shown to be poisonous, but there may be insufficient data regarding the other parts. So if a species part is already listed, don't assume that the other parts are safe, unless they have been proven. This is how these data are collected--from somebody's unfortunate experience. You probably don't want to become another testimonial in this hall of fame!
Suggested Reading:
Blackwell, W.H. 1990. Poisonous and Medicinal Plants. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Bruneton, J. 1999. Toxic Plants Dangerous to Humans and Animals. Lavoisier Publishing, Paris.
Emboden, W. 1979. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, New York, NY.
Hole, L. 2000. Herbs & Edible Flowers. Hole's, St. Albert, AB.
Kingsbury, J.M. 1965. Deadly Harvest. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, NY.
Leggatt, J. 1987. Cooking with Flowers. Fawcett Columbine, New York, NY.
Newdick, J. & M. Lawrence. 1991. Flowers as Food. Crescent Books, New York, NY.
Ott, J. 1976. Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA.
Stephens, H.A. 1984. Poisonous Plants of the Central United States. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, KS.
Tampion, J. 1977. Dangerous Plants. David & Charles Publishers, Vancouver, BC.
Warning: The following articles deal with more toxic plants. Many are highly poisonous and are not recommended for gardens used by children or pets. Always wash your hands thoroughly after handling any toxic plant, and it is recommended that gloves be worn at all times. Ingesting such plants can be deadly. Ingestion is not recommended.
Dr. Eva Pip is a Full Professor at the University of Winnipeg. She lives in the Cloverleaf area in Eastern Manitoba. Eva has taught courses in plant anatomy, physiology and taxonomy for over 25 years.
Table 1: Some Examples of Common Plant Secondary Com wounds
Compound Where Found
Alkaloids In many flowering plant families,
>10,000 identified so far
Unusual amines In many flowering plant families,
often flowers
Cyanogenic At least 2650 species in 130
glycosides families, often seeds and young
leaves
Cardiac Some Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
glycosides Scrophulariaceae, Brassicaceae,
Crassulaceae and others
Glucosinolates Brassicaceae and other families in
order Ca aridales
Coumarins A iaceae, Rutaceae and others
Unusual Convolvulaceae, Sterculiaceae, castor
fatty acids bean (ricinoleic acid)
Phenols Universal
Monoterpenes In >50 families with essential oils,
localized in specialized cells and
ducts
Diterpenes Many latex and resin producing
secies
Limonoids Turaceae, Meliaceae, Simaroubaceae
Cucurbitacins Cucurbitaceae and some others
Sesquiterpene Asteraceae, Lauraceae and others
lactones
Tannins Widespread, especially in woody
species
Saponins Sporadic
Polyacetylenes Asteraceae, Umbelliferae
Unusual Leguminosae
dipeptides
Unusual Leguminosae and orb ers
proteins
Selenium Asteraceae, Leguminosae,
compounds Cheno odiaceae, Scro hulariaceae
Fluorine Leguminosae, Rubiaceae,
compounds Dichapetalaceae
Compound Qualities
Alkaloids Bitter and/or toxic, many
interfere with animal
neurotransmitters
Unusual amines Unpleasant taste, some
hallucinoraenic
Cyanogenic Cyanide released when
glycosides compounds react with digestive
enzymes
Cardiac Increase strength of cardiac
glycosides muscle contractions, decrease
heart rate
Glucosinolates Unpleasant taste
Coumarins Cause hemorrhtye
Unusual Interfere with lipid metabolism
fatty acids
Phenols Antimicrobial
Monoterpenes Volatile with strong odour, may
intoxicate
Diterpenes Astringent taste, some toxic
Limonoids Unpleasant taste
Cucurbitacins Unpleasant taste, some toxic
Sesquiterpene Allergens, neurolo?ical toxins
lactones
Tannins Inhibit digestion by binding to
proteins; some toxic
Saponins Detergents; stimulate intestinal
contractions and hemolyze
blood cells
Polyacetylenes Some toxic
Unusual Lathyrogens cause paralysis,
dipeptides premature in (lath rism)
Unusual Allergens, hematemesis,
proteins fainting, blood clots
Selenium Appetite loss, reproductive
compounds problems
Fluorine Toxic respiratory enzyme
compounds inhibitors
Table 2: A Partial List of Common Toxic Prairie Garden Plants
This list does not include houseplants, native species or fungi.
Where only genera are listed, all species should be considered
suspect until more data prove otherwise.
See end of table for notes.
Name Common Name
Aconitum * Monkshood
Acorus calamus Sweet Flag
Aerculus Buckeye
Agrostemma Ornamental Corn Cockle
Allium giganteum Giant or Tibetan Onion
Amaranthus Amaranth
Amaryllis Amaryllis
Anchusa Summer Forget-Me-Not
Anemone Anemone
Antirrhinum Snapdragon
Aquilegia Columbine *
Arisaema triphyllum Jack in the Pulpit
Artemisia * Silver Artemisia, Wormwood
Asdepias Monarch Butterfly Milkweed
Asparagus Asparagus
Aster Aster
Azalea Azalea
Baptisia False Indigo
Begonia Begonia
Beta vulgaris *** Beets
Borago officinalis ** Borage
Browallia Browallia, Blue 'Violet'
Brugmansia * Brugmansia, Trumpet Flower
Caladium Caladium, Angel Wins
Caltha palustris Marsh Marigold
Clematis Clematis
Colocasia Elephant's Ear
Convallaria majalis Lily of the Valley
Convolvulus Morning Glory
Corydalis Fumatory
Cotoneaster Cotoneaster
Craetegus Hawthorn
Cyclamen * Cyclamen
Cynoglossum Chinese Forget-Me-Not
Datura * Angel's Trumpet
Daucus Carrot, Queen Anne's Lace
Delphinium Larkspur (annual + perennial)
Dicentra * Bleeding Heart
Dictamnus * Gas Plant, Fraxinella
Digitalis * Foxglove
Echinops Globe Thistle
Escholtzia California Poppy
Eupatorium Joe Pye Weed
Festuca arundinacea Tall Fescue
Fritillaria Crown Imperial, Fritillary
Galanthus Snowdrops
Gladiolus Gladiolus
Gloriosa superba * Gloriosa Lily Vine
Hedera helix English Ivy
Helenium Helen's Daisy, Sneezeweed
Heliotropium * Heliotrope
Hyacinthus Hyacinth
Hydrangea Hydrangea
Hypericume perforatum St. John's Wort
Impatiens Impatiens
Ipomoea Morning Glory
Iris Iris
Lactuca sativa Lettuce
Lathyrus Sweet Pea
(annual +
perennial)
Ligularia Groundsel
Lilium Garden Lilies
Linum Flax
(scarlet +
perennial)
Lobelia Lobelia
Lupinus * Lupine
Lycopersicon Tomato
esculentum
Malus * Apple
Menispermum Moonseed
canadense
Mirabilis jalapa Four O'Clock
Monarda Bergamot
Myosotis Forget-Me-Not
Nicotiana * Flowering Tobacco
Narcissus Daffodils, Narcissus
Nierembergia Nierember is
Nymphaea, Nuphar Water Lily
Ornithogallum Star of Bethlehem
Paeonia Peony
lactiflora
Papaver * Poppies
Parthenocissus Virginia Creeper
virginianus
Penstemon Beard's tongue
Petunia Petunia
Phaseolus lunatus Broad or Lima Bean,
Fava Bean
Phaseolur vulgaris Kidney Bean
Philadelphut * Mock Orange
Polygonatum Solomon's Seal
Portulaca Portulaca
Prunus * Plum, Cherry, Apricot
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern
Ranunculus Buttercup
Rheum * Rhubarb
Ricinus * Castor Bean
Rumex * Sorrel, Yellow Dock
Salvia reflexa Ornamental
(annual) Salvia
Sambucus Elderberry
Sanguinaria Bloodroot
canadensis
Saponaria Soapwort
Scilla * Squill
Solanum * Potato, Nightshade
Solidago Goldenrod
Sorbus Mountain Ash
Symphytum officinale Comfrey
Tanacetum Tansy
Tulipa Tulip
Vinca Periwinkle
Zantedetchia Angel Wings,
Caladium
Scientific
Name Poisonous parts
Aconitum * All parts
Acorus calamus Root
Aerculus All pparts
Agrostemma Leaves
Allium giganteum All parts
Amaranthus All parts
Amaryllis Bulb
Anchusa All parts
Anemone All parts
Antirrhinum Leaves
Aquilegia All parts
Arisaema triphyllum All parts
Artemisia * All parts
Asdepias All parts
Asparagus Berries, mature leaves
Aster All parts
Azalea All parts
Baptisia All parts
Begonia All Paris
Beta vulgaris *** Leaves only
Borago officinalis ** Leaves, flowers
Browallia All parts
Brugmansia * All parts
Caladium All parts
Caltha palustris Leaves
Clematis Leaves
Colocasia All parts
Convallaria majalis All parts
Convolvulus Seeds
Corydalis All parts
Cotoneaster Berries
Craetegus Fruits
Cyclamen * Roots
Cynoglossum All parts
Datura * All parts
Daucus Leaves
Delphinium All parts, young foliagemost toxic
Dicentra * All parts
Dictamnus * All parts
Digitalis * All parts
Echinops Leaves
Escholtzia Seeds
Eupatorium All parts
Festuca arundinacea Leaves
Fritillaria All parts
Galanthus Bulbs
Gladiolus Corms (bulbs)
Gloriosa superba * All parts
Hedera helix Leaves
Helenium All parts
Heliotropium * All parts
Hyacinthus All parts
Hydrangea Leaves
Hypericume perforatum Leaves
Impatiens Leaves
Ipomoea Seeds
Iris All parts
Lactuca sativa Leaves of bolted plants
Lathyrus Seeds
Ligularia All parts
Lilium All parts
Linum Leaves
Lobelia All parts
Lupinus * All parts
Lycopersicon All green parts
esculentum
Malus * Bark, leaves, seeds
Menispermum Leaves, fruits
canadense
Mirabilis jalapa Roots, seeds
Monarda Leaves
Myosotis All parts
Nicotiana * All green parts
Narcissus All parts
Nierembergia All parts
Nymphaea, Nuphar All parts
Ornithogallum All parts
Paeonia Seeds
lactiflora
Papaver * Leaves, pods
Parthenocissus Berries and seeds
virginianus
Penstemon All parts
Petunia All parts
Phaseolus lunatus All parts (If
grown in
nitrogen
fertilized
conditions)
Phaseolur vulgaris RAW seeds only
Philadelphut * Seeds
Polygonatum Berries
Portulaca Leaves
Prunus * Leaves, bark,
seeds inside pits
Pteridium aquilinum All parts
Ranunculus All parts
Rheum * All green parts
Ricinus * All parts
Rumex * Leaves
Salvia reflexa Leaves
Sambucus Leaves, bark
Sanguinaria Roots
canadensis
Saponaria Seeds
Scilla * All parts
Solanum * All green parts, berries
Solidago Leaves
Sorbus Berries
Symphytum officinale All parts
Tanacetum All parts
Tulipa All parts
Vinca All parts
Zantedetchia All parts
Scientific
Name Toxic Agent(s)
Aconitum * Diterpenoid alkaloids (aconite)
Acorus calamus Asarone
Aerculus Coumarin, Glycosides
Agrostemma Saponins
Allium giganteum Alkaloids
Amaranthus Nitrates
Amaryllis Alkaloids
Anchusa Alkaloids
Anemone Protoanemonin, glycosides
Antirrhinum Purgativeve (alkaloid?)
Aquilegia Alkaloids, thu'one
Arisaema triphyllum Oxalic acid
Artemisia * Alkaloids, sesquiterp enes
Asdepias Alkaloids, resinoids, cardiac glycosides
Asparagus Unidentified toxin
Aster Selenium compounds
Azalea Resinoids
Baptisia Quinolizidine alkaloids
Begonia Unidentified toxin
Beta vulgaris *** Oxalic acid, nitrates
Borago officinalis ** Alkaloids (lycopsamine,
thesinine, amabiline)
Browallia Alkaloids
Brugmansia * Tropane alkaloids
Caladium Oxalates
Caltha palustris Protoanemonin
Clematis Protoanemonin
Colocasia Oxalic acid
Convallaria majalis Cardiac glycosides
(convallarin,convallatoxin)
Convolvulus LSD-like hallucinogens
Corydalis Isoquinoline alkaloids
Cotoneaster Cyanogenic glycosides
Craetegus Cyanogenic glycosides
Cyclamen * Unidentified toxin
Cynoglossum Alkaloids
Datura * Tropane alkaloids, nitrates
Daucus Nitrates
Delphinium Diterpenoid alkaloids
Dicentra * Alkaloids (protopine)
Dictamnus * Alkaloids, furans, limonoids
Digitalis * Cardiac glycosides
Echinops Quinoline alkaloids
Escholtzia Alkaloids
Eupatorium Nitrates, pyrrolizidine
alkaloids, toxic alcohol
(tremetol)
Festuca arundinacea Alkaloids
Fritillaria Alkaloids
Galanthus Alkaloids
Gladiolus Emetic substances
Gloriosa superba * Alkaloids
Hedera helix Sa onins
Helenium Glycosides (dugaldin)
Heliotropium * Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
(lasiocarpine, heliotrine)
Hyacinthus Unidentified toxin
Hydrangea Cyano enic glycosides
Hypericume perforatum Resinoids (hypericin)
Impatiens Unidentified toxin
Ipomoea LSD-like hallucinogens
Iris Alkaloids, resinoids
Lactuca sativa Toxic latex compounds
Lathyrus Varies with species
Ligularia Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Lilium Emetic substances
Linum Cyanogenic glycosides
Lobelia Alkaloids (emetic)
Lupinus * Quinolizidine alkaloids(ana yrine)
Lycopersicon Steroidal alkaloids(solanine)
esculentum
Malus * Cyano enic glycosides
Menispermum Alkaloids
canadense
Mirabilis jalapa Stomach irritant
Monarda Furanocoumarins
Myosotis Alkaloids
Nicotiana * Alkaloids (nicotine)
Narcissus Alkaloids
Nierembergia Alkaloids
Nymphaea, Nuphar Alkaloids
Ornithogallum Alkaloids
Paeonia Resveratrol
lactiflora
Papaver * Isoquinoline alkaloids(morphine)
Parthenocissus Unidentified toxin
virginianus
Penstemon Selenium compounds
Petunia Alkaloids
Phaseolus lunatus Cyanogenic
glycosides
(linamarin)
(causes favism)
Phaseolur vulgaris Hemagglutinins,
toxiclectins
Philadelphut * Unidentified toxin
Polygonatum Anthra uinones
Portulaca Oxalic acid
Prunus * Cyanogenic glycosides
Pteridium aquilinum Thiaminase
Ranunculus Promanemonin, glycosides
Rheum * Oxalic acid
Ricinus * Ricinoleic acid, ricin
Rumex * Oxalic acid
Salvia reflexa Nitrates
Sambucus Alkaloids
Sanguinaria Alkaloids
canadensis
Saponaria Sa onins
Scilla * Cardiac glycosides
Solanum * Steroidal alkaloids
(solanine), nitrates
Solidago Nitrates, (resinoids
at flowering time)
Sorbus Unidentified toxin
Symphytum officinale Alkaloids (echimidine)
Tanacetum Tanacetin
Tulipa Tulipalin
Vinca Alkaloids
Zantedetchia Oxalic acid
All parts = leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds
* = human fatalities have been reported. There are probably
fatalities for some of the other species, but
many jurisdictions do not require such deaths to be reported.
** In Germany in 1991 borage was banned from use
in medicine and commercial products.
*** Hundreds of livestock deaths reported from beet tops.
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| Author: | Pip, Eva |
|---|---|
| Publication: | Prairie Garden |
| Geographic Code: | 1USA |
| Date: | Jan 1, 2006 |
| Words: | 3358 |
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