Tolkiens's Sigurd & Gudrun: summary, sources, & analogs.
TOLKIEN'S VERSE IN SIGURD & GUDRUN IS INTENTIONALLY so condensed and so allusive that it is easy to miss the plot on a first reading. This table is intended to provide a convenient summary. It also indicates which major elements of the existing primary world legendarium Tolkien used for his purposes, and which he rejected. I have relied on Christopher Tolkien's endnotes and have also compared Tolkien to his sources. A third goal is to show what use of these elements Tolkien made in his other fiction.I have not attempted to compare Tolkien to other modern treatments of the story (Richard Wagner, William Morris). Throughout the table I use J.R.R. Tolkien's [JRRT's] names for the characters, even when discussing sources that give them different names (Gudrun for Kriemhild, etc).
I begin with a genealogical table. This shows all persons, named or unnamed, in both lays.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
WORKS CITED
Babcock, Michael A. The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun. New York: Berkley Books, 2005.
The Elder Edda: A Selection. Trans. Paul B. Taylor and W. H. Auden. New York: Vintage Books, 1970.
Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks. Trans. Lewis Thorpe. New York: Penguin Books, 1974.
Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Ed. Max Knight. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.
The Nibelungenlied. Trans. A. T. Hatto. New York: Penguin Books, 1965.
The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise. Trans. and ed. Christopher Tolkien. London: Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd., 1960.
The Saga of the Volsungs. Trans. Margaret Schlauch. New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1930.
Shippey, Tom. Tolkien out-Wagners Wagner. (Review of Sigurd & Gudrun). Times [of London] Literary Supplement 8 May 2009. 3-5.
-- "The Problem of the Rings: Tolkien and Wagner." Roots and Branches: Selected Papers on Tolkien. Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2007. 97-114.
Thiorekssaga. <http://www.timelessmyths.com/norse/thidrek.html>. 24 September 2009.
Tolkien, J.R.R. The Adventures of Tom Bombadil. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1962.
--. Farmer Giles of Ham. New York: Ballantine Books, 1969. Bound with Smith of Wooton Major.
--. Finn and Hengest: The Fragment and the Episode. Ed. Alan Bliss. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983.
--. The Hobbit. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1937.
--. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. Edited by Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2009.
--. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
--. The Silmarillion. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths. Trans. Thomas J Dunlap. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
Rejected
Elements Sources
The Lay of the Volsungs: Beginning
Elder Edda: Voluspa.
Elder Edda; Snorri's
Edda.
"This motive of the
special function of
Sigurd is an
invention of the
present poet"--JRRT,
Sigurd & Gudrun
[S&G] 53-54.
The Lay of the Volsungs: I. Andvari's Gold
Nibelungenlied only Elder Edda:
begins at a much Reginsmal; Snorri's
later point. Edda; Volsunga Saga
are the sources
throughout this
section.
Nibelungenlied also
has a dwarf,
Alberich, and a
treasure. Details
are different and
the treatment is
far less extensive.
JRRT's
invention.
The Lay of the Volsungs: II. Signy
In Beowulf it is Volsunga Saga is
Sigmund who the main source
slays the dragon, throughout this
and nothing is said section, greatly
of any son Sigurd. compressed.
Elder Edda:
Grimnismal
(only for the
name Grimnir).
In Volsunga Saga
Signy has four
other sons by
Siggeir, who all
come to bad ends
at the hands of
Sinfjotli and
Sigmund.
The Lay of the Volsungs: III. The Death of Sinfjotli
JRRT greatly Volsunga
compressed Volsunga Saga; Elder
Saga, where the Edda: Fra
queen's name is dauoa
Borghild. The story Sinfjotla.
of her son Helgi
Hundingsbani is
omitted as
irrelevant.
At the third
attempt, Volsunga
Saga's Sigmund
advises his son to
strain the drink
through his beard.
This detail, though
picturesque, makes
no sense; JRRT
omits it.
The Lay of the Volsungs: IV. Sigurd Born
Volsunga Saga
throughout, except
that the name
Sigrlinn has been
adapted from
Nibelungenlied.
The Lay of the Volsungs: V. Regin
Thiorekssaga has Volsunga Saga
a very different primarily,
childhood account throughout this
of Sigurd, who is section.
nonetheless still
the son of Sigmund.
The infant sails
down a river in a
glass basket, is
raised by a doe,
then found and
adopted by Mimir.
In Thiorekssaga, Also Snorri's Edda
Regin is the dragon and two lays of the
and the smith is Elder Edda:
called Mimir. Reginsmal and
Sigurd kills the Fafnismal.
dragon, then kills
Mimir, then
betroths himself
to the Valkyrie
Brynhild.
In Volsunga Saga,
Sigurd will pursue
no dragon until he
has avenged his
father. JRRT drops
this.
Nibelungenlied
knows that Sigurd
killed a dragon,
and says so briefly
in a flashback. The
horny skin is
important here; a
vital spot between
the shoulder blades
is left
unprotected. (6)
In Volsunga Saga
the riddles are
interesting in
themselves but
irrelevant to the
plot, so dropped
by JRRT.
In Volsunga Saga,
he saves part of
the heart to give
later to Gudrun.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VI. Brynhild
Volsunga Saga;
Elder Edda:
Sigrdrifumal.
Nibelungenlied Remote sources for
knows nothing of Sigurd and Brynhild
Valkyries. Its may be Sigibert King
Brynhild is an of the Franks
Amazon and can only ([dagger] 575) and
be subdued by his queen Brunhild
deflowering her. ([dagger] 613),
She is Queen of daughter to the
Iceland and sister King of the
of Attila, Visigoths. (12)
stretching dynastic
geography to the
limit.
In Nibelungenlied,
the two first meet
in Iceland, where
Brynhild's prior
knowledge of Sigurd
is tantalizingly
unclear.
In Volsunga Saga
Brynhild gives us
a dissertation on
runes which JRRT
omits.
Volsunga Saga gives Here Sigrdrifumal
the couple a breaks off and the
daughter Aslaug, 8-leaf gap in the
who marries Ragnar Codex Regius begins.
Lodbrok. (13)
From this point the
only source is
Volsunga Saga.
Brynhild's refusal
to marry Sigurd
until he attains his
kingdom is JRRT's
own invention.
Volsunga Saga now
re-introduces
Brynhild & her
domestic sister as
though Sigurd had
never seen her
before.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VII. Gudrun
In the source, she Volsunga Saga.
recounts this dream
to Brynhild.
The main narrative Volsunga Saga;
of Nibelungenlied Snorri's Edda. For
begins here, with the bare names of
Hogni (Hagen) being the historical
a vassal, not a personages, Old
brother. English sources &
Burgundian lawbooks.
In Thiorekssaga, Volsunga Saga.
Sigurd likewise
(after various
adventures) comes
to Gunnar. (17) King Heidrek's Saga;
Elder Edda:
Atlakvioa.
Recapitulation of
story already told.
Volsunga Saga.
In Volsunga Saga
this expedition
took place at an
earlier point.
Volsunga Saga.
Volsunga Saga.
Volsunga Saga.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VIII. Brynhild Betrayed
In Thiorekssaga, Volsunga Saga is the
Sigurd knowingly primary source
breaks his throughout this
betrothal to section. Odin's
Brynhild and visit to Brynhild
marries Gudrun, is original to JRRT.
just because it is
a more advantageous
alliance. Brynhild
marries Gunnar on
the rebound, but as
in Nibelungenlied
she rebuffs him on
the wedding night
and hangs him from
a peg. She is not
tamed until Gunnar
authorizes Sigurd
to rape her.
Volsunga Saga gives
the couple a son
Sigmund, whom JRRT
ignores.
In Nibelungenlied
the heroes travel
to Iceland where
Sigurd, using an
invisibility cloak
that he got from
the dragon,
overcomes Brynhild
in athletic
contests (Gunnar
going through the
motions). Gunnar
marries her. For
three nights
running she ties
him up and hangs
him from the wall.
Sigurd has to
wrestle Brynhild
down so that Gunnar
can deflower her.
In Nibelungenlied
Brynhild is
encouraged to think
that Sigurd is
Gunnar's vassal.
This ineradicable
delusion, not any
love for Sigurd,
is the reason she
subsequently claims
social precedence
over Gudrun.
For the wide
variations in the
ring story at this
point, between and
even within the
different sources,
see Tom Shippey,
"The Problem of
the Rings: Tolkien
and Wagner."
The Lay of the Volsungs: IX. Strife
Volsunga Saga
remains the primary
source throughout
this section.
Snorri's Edda covers
much the same ground
more briefly.
In Nibelungenlied,
the ladies quarrel
at the church
door. (22)
In Thiorekssaga, This ends the
the quarrel of the missing eight
queens occurs much leaves of the
as in the Codex Regius, and
Nibelungenlied, and the manuscript
Hogni spears Sigurd resumes in the
in the back. When middle of the Brot.
he rubbed on the
dragon blood he
hadn't been able to
reach between the
shoulder blades.
In Nibelungenlied,
he goes so far as
to beat her.
Various sources Elder Edda:
have Sigurd killed Brot;
by Gunnar or by Siguroarkvioa
Hogni; outdoors en skamma.
while hunting or
indoors lying in
Gudrun's arms. In
Nibelungenlied,
Hogni tricks Gudrun
into revealing
Sigurd's one
vulnerable spot so
he can be speared
in the back.
In Volsunga Saga,
Gudrun bears to
Sigurd a posthumous
daughter Swanhild.
In Nibelungenlied,
Brynhild survives
Sigurd's death but
take little part in
the rest of the
story.
This passage
is JRRT's
own, except
for echoes of
Hakonarmal.
The Lay of Gudrun
Gudrunarkvioa
en forna.
The German
sources, unlike the
Norse, treat Attila
as a noble and
generous king. (26)
Elder Edda:
Atlakvioa and
Atlamal are the
primary sources
throughout this Lay,
and begin at this
point. Volsunga Saga
covers the same
ground but is a less
important source.
In the Elder Edda
Grimhild gives
Gudrun one of her
patented potions
to induce her to
accept Atli's suit.
Atlakvioa: Gudrun
and Atli have a
horrible domestic
life together.
In Thiorekssaga,
Atli & Gudrun
jointly invite the
Niflungs so as to
ambush them and get
the gold. Numerous
subsidiary
characters &
adventures are
introduced.
In Nibelungenlied,
so far from warning
off the Niflungs
Gudrun entices them
to Hunland to get
revenge on
Hogni. (31)
In Thiorekssaga,
there are no
hostilities upon
arrival and
everyone sits down
to a very strained
feast. Unable to
get any of Atli's
henchmen to attack
Hogni, Gudrun
precipitates the
fight by tricking
her young son into
landing a punch on
him. Hogni slices
off the boy's head
for his pains, and
tosses it into
Gudrun's lap.
In Nibelungenlied
and Thiorekssaga,
Atli stands above
the fray dithering
while his vassals
(32) do the actual
fighting.
The names in
the song
come from
Heiorek's
Saga.
Here JRRT abandons
the Norse sources
and turns to
Nibelungenlied,
supplemented by
material from Finn
& Hengest not
originally connected
to the Niflung
story.
Thiorekssaga omits
these refinements
and kills off all
the Niflung
brothers, either
during the battle
or at the hands of
Gudrun. Reflecting
rather too late
that his queen has
caused a lot of
bloodshed, Atli has
one of his henchmen
(Theodoric as it
happens) cut her up
into little pieces.
Fantastic as the
situation now is,
there are strong
parallels (if not
perhaps sources) in
actual history. (38)
Nibelungenlied & Marcellinus Comes
Thiorekssaga leave thinks that Attila
Attila alive at was murdered (42) by
story's end, thus his new wife Ildico,
getting wrong the whose name suggests
only fact about the some sort of German.
whole affair that
ancient historians
agree upon.
Volsunga Saga Elder Edda:
lets her live Gudrunarhvot.
to remarry.
Original to
JRRT.
Rejected
Elements Strophe JRRT's Plot
The Lay of the Volsungs: Beginning
1-9 The Gods (Aesir) construct the world,
plant the sun and moon in the sky,
make the flora and fauna, create
mankind, forge weapons, and
(tentatively) overcome the
Titans.
10-15 A Sybil foresees the future
destruction (in the Last Battle)
of men, gods, and earth itself.
Only the greatest of heroes
(Sigurd) can avert this Ragnarok,
because he, unlike the Gods, will
have experienced both death and
apotheosis. Thus can the Aesir
re-build a new heaven and a new
earth following the apocalypse. (1)
16-20 Odin constructs Valholl, where the
dead heroes can await the Last
Battle. Odin will recruit the
race of Volsungs for this
purpose, and particularly Sigurd--
even if he has to curse them to do
so.
The Lay of the Volsungs: I. Andvari's Gold
Nibelungenlied only 1-6 The Aesir, Odin, Loki, and Hnir walk
begins at a much the world. At Andvari's pool, Loki
later point. gratuitously kills Otr. He had been
fishing in otter's shape. The three
Gods then seek hospitality from
Hreidmar, (2) who turns out to be
father to Otr, Fafnir, and Regin.
Hreidmar and his two surviving
sons take the Gods prisoner, and
demand as wergild that they cover
Otr's skin with gold.
7-8 Loki is paroled long enough to borrow
the sea goddess's net for catching
drowned sailors. With this he
ensnares the dwarf Andvari (in pike's
shape). Andvari owns a treasure of
gold, the future Hoard of the
Niflungs. We are not told where or
how he got it.
Nibelungenlied also 9-10 Loki will only release Andvari upon
has a dwarf, surrender of all his gold. Andvari
Alberich, and a begs to retain one little ring,
treasure. Details Andvaranaut. He wants seed money
are different and to re-build his fortune (he knows
the treatment is about compound interest). Loki
far less extensive. insists on having it all. Mistake!
Andvari curses all the gold, but
especially the little ring.
11-12 Odin covers the otter skin with the
gold, keeping back the little ring.
One whisker remains uncovered. Odin
is forced to give that up too.
Hreidmar keeps the gold but
releases the three Gods. Odin
will seek revenge.
13-15 Loki foretells the disasters to
follow. Odin replies, admitting
the disasters but foreseeing also
the ultimate eucatastrophe--that
is, that Sigurd will come to Vallholl
and so participate decisively in the
Ragnarok. Out of evil he will bring
forth good.
The Lay of the Volsungs: II. Signy
In Beowulf it is 1-4 Volsung (3) is a Viking king, the
Sigmund who great-grandson of Odin. A Valkyrie
slays the dragon, wife bears him eleven children: the
and nothing is said twins Sigmund and Signy (male and
of any son Sigurd. female), as well as nine other sons.
He reigns gloriously and builds a
great hall with a living tree in
its midst, upon which the birds sing.
5-9 Siggeir King of the Gauts proposes to
marry Signy. It is an advantageous
political marriage. Volsung and
Sigmund both consent, although
Signy foresees the disastrous
consequences.
10-20 At the wedding feast, Odin appears in
the guise of Grimnir and sinks a
sword (later to be identified as
Gram) into the living tree. He
challenges those present to draw
out the sword. This provokes a
battle between Volsungs and Gauts.
Sigmund withdraws the sword and
defeats the Gauts, but spares
Siggeir. Siggeir offers to buy
the sword for cash, but is refused.
The defeated Gauts swallow the
insult and are allowed to sail
back with the bride. Having
already given her away, Volsung
will not go back on his word.
21-25 Some time later, Volsung and Sigmund
sail to Gautland with an army,
ostensibly on a visit to Signy. Upon
their arrival she warns them that
Siggeir still wants revenge and that
they are marching into an ambush.
The Volsungs attack first but are
defeated; Volsung is slain; the
ten brothers are captured alive.
26-29 Signy begs Siggeir to let her
brothers live. He ironically
agrees, then sets them bound
in the forest to starve.
Siggeir's mother, a werewolf,
emerges on ten successive
nights to eat the brothers
alive. On the tenth night,
she attacks Sigmund, the
last brother, but he
escapes. (4)
30-32 Sigmund retires to an abandoned
dwarf-cave. Signy seeks him out
and commits incest with him.
She does this with loathing,
but feels duty-bound to
conceive the next generation
of Volsungs and to provide a
hero who will avenge Volsung.
She gives birth to Sinfjotli.
In Volsunga Saga 33-36 Sigmund lives as an outlaw while
Signy has four Sinfjotli grows to a boy. Then
other sons by Signy sends Sinfjotli to Sigmund,
Siggeir, who all bearing Volsung's sword Gram. The
come to bad ends son and father live a horrible
at the hands of life together as werewolves and
Sinfjotli and murderers, until Sinfjotli is
Sigmund. fully grown.
37-41 Sigmund and Sinfjotli, still as
werewolves, attack Siggeir. They
kill him and burn down his fortress.
Signy appears at the door of the
burning fortress, but declines to
be rescued--she loathes her own
deeds, necessary though they were,
and retires into the fortress to
die with her hated husband.
The Lay of the Volsungs: III. The Death of Sinfjotli
JRRT greatly 1-4 Sigmund and Sinfjotli are now back
compressed Volsunga at their ancestral seat, gloriously
Saga, where the reigning and victorious in war.
queen's name is Sigmund takes a queen, and this
Borghild. The story queen is a witch. We are not told
of her son Helgi her name.
Hundingsbani is
omitted as
irrelevant.
At the third 5-10 Sinfjotli has killed the queen's
attempt, Volsunga father, how and when we do not know.
Saga's Sigmund The queen, bent on revenge, three
advises his son to times attempts to poison Sinfjotli.
strain the drink (5) Sigmund twice intercepts the
through his beard. drink. It does him no harm (he is
This detail, though immune to poison) except to make
picturesque, makes him drunker. By the third attempt,
no sense; JRRT Sigmund is too drunk to intervene
omits it. further. Sinfjotli swallows the
drink in the first half of a line
and dies in the second half. As a
junior hero he is immune only to
externally-applied poison.
11-13 With the help of Odin (disguised
this time as a boatman), Sigmund
dispatches the dead Sinfjotli to
Valholl, where his grandfather
Volsung greets him. Two down,
two to go.
The Lay of the Volsungs: IV. Sigurd Born
1-4 Sigmund, grown old, has married a
beautiful young girl, Sigrlinn
(presumably the old witch queen
has died). Sigrlinn has chosen the
old man in preference to seven
king's sons who all wooed her.
She wants the glory of bearing
"the World's chosen," Sigurd the
Dragon-Slayer, most famous of
the heroes of the North.
5-9 The rejected suitors attack as soon
as the couple is married. Sigmund is
disarmed by the disguised Odin, who
has a reputation for abandoning his
favorites. Sigmund is mortally
wounded in battle, and the sword
is broken.
10-13 After the battle Sigrlinn offers
to heal Sigmund, but he feels Odin
calling him to Valholl, and declines
help. He predicts the birth and
early death of Sigurd, enjoins the
pregnant Sigrlinn to preserve the
shards of the sword, and dies.
14-18 A second fleet of pirates sails by,
and captures Sigrlinn after she
succeeds in changing places with her
handmaid. Thus Sigurd is born into
slavery in a far country.
The Lay of the Volsungs: V. Regin
Thiorekssaga has 1-2 Sigurd has grown up. He is sent (we
a very different are not told why or by whom) to be
childhood account tutored by Regin, who is a master
of Sigurd, who is smith and all--around polymath besides
nonetheless still being the brother of Otr and Fafnir.
the son of Sigmund.
The infant sails
down a river in a
glass basket, is
raised by a doe,
then found and
adopted by Mimir.
In Thiorekssaga, 3-6 Regin knows of a dragon. He urges
Regin is the dragon Sigurd to kill the dragon and seize
and the smith is his treasure.
called Mimir.
Sigurd kills the
dragon, then kills 7-12 Regin tells Sigurd the story of
Mimir, then Andvari's Gold. We have heard all
betroths himself this before.
to the Valkyrie 13-14 Regin goes on to tell Sigurd how
Brynhild. Fafnir has killed Hreidmar, seized
his hoard, denied any share to Regin,
and has consequently turned into a
dragon on Gnitaheioi.
15-16 Sigurd is suspicious of Regin's
motives. Regin counters that the
benefit is mutual--Sigurd can use
the cash to recover his throne,
Regin can wreak his own revenge on
Fafnir.
In Volsunga Saga, 17-20 Sigurd finally accedes. Regin twice
Sigurd will pursue forges a sword for Sigurd. Sigurd
no dragon until he breaks each one in testing it. From
has avenged his Sigrlinn (who reappears in the
father. JRRT drops briefest of cameos), Sigurd obtains
this. the shards of Gram: the Sword that
was Broken. Regin reforges the sword
and gives it to Sigurd. The sword
cleaves the anvil and severs a tuft
of wool floating in the Rhine.
21-25 Regin and Sigurd set off to find
the dragon. Odin, again in disguise,
meets Sigurd and gives him the horse
Grani.
Nibelungenlied 26-29 Sigurd kills the dragon by digging a
knows that Sigurd pit and stabbing upwards as the
killed a dragon, dragon passes overhead. He is
and says so briefly drenched in the blood, which
in a flashback. The hardens his skin (JRRT retains
horny skin is this plot element but makes no
important here; a further use of it). Regin takes no
vital spot between part in the combat.
the shoulder blades
is left
unprotected. (6)
In Volsunga Saga 30-34 Sigurd and the dying Fafnir converse.
the riddles are Sigurd identifies himself. (7) Fafnir
interesting in tells Sigurd that the gold is cursed,
themselves but then dies. Sigurd ignores the curse.
irrelevant to the
plot, so dropped 35-38 Regin congratulates Sigurd, then
by JRRT. feigns remorse at killing his own
brother. Sigurd assures him that
his share of the guilt is
inconsiderable.
39-40 Regin cuts the heart out of Fafnir
and drinks of his blood. This sends
him to sleep--but not before Regin
has asked Sigurd to roast Fafnir's
heart for him.
41 Sigurd does so. (8) Burning his
finger, he sucks it cool. As soon
as he tastes the hot gravy, he
understands the speech of birds
and beasts.
42-44 Two birds warn Sigurd that Regin
(9) is dangerous and that Sigurd should
eat the heart himself.
45 Turning around, Sigurd sees Regin
creeping up on him, perhaps to
avenge his brother, perhaps to
steal the gold. He has been shamming
sleep. Sigurd cuts him down.
In Volsunga Saga, 46-48 He then finishes the heart. This
he saves part of must be what turns him into a
the heart to give champion. Up till now he has been
later to Gudrun. more a burglar than a hero. He
puts on the Helm of Horror
(originally Hreidmar's), rifles the
gold from the dragon's cave, loads
it on Grani, and begins his return
trip. JRRT retains the Helm from
his source but makes no further
use of it.
49-54 As he returns, two birds tell him of
the two women soon to come into his
life--Brynhild and Gudrun. He hears,
(10) but pays no attention.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VI. Brynhild
1-4 Sigurd, coming directly from the
dragon-slaying, reaches the
mountain Hindarfell. He finds
it surrounded by a shield-wall
and a fence of flickering flames.
He crosses the flames, (11) finds
Brynhild asleep in full harness,
and awakens her.
5-6 Brynhild poetically celebrates her
resuscitation.
Nibelungenlied 7-8 Brynhild introduces herself. She is a
knows nothing of shield-maiden, a favorite of Odin. He
Valkyries. Its has punished her by condemning her to
Brynhild is an marry and putting her into this
Amazon and can only charmed sleep. It is implied that
be subdued by she must marry whomever wakes her.
deflowering her. Before falling asleep, Brynhild has
She is Queen of vowed to take no husband but the
Iceland and sister greatest of warriors. The birds
of Attila, have already told us that Brynhild
stretching dynastic is a Valkyrie, a chooser of the
geography to the slain. At some point she has
limit. chosen the wrong warrior to die.
This is the offense for which she
is punished.
In Nibelungenlied, 9-10 Sigurd reveals his name and family,
the two first meet and they compare notes. Brynhild
in Iceland, where realizes that her hero has come.
Brynhild's prior After a show of modesty, Sigurd
knowledge of Sigurd admits to being the World's
is tantalizingly chosen--the one that all the
unclear. heroes in Valholl are waiting for.
In Volsunga Saga 11-14 They drink to each other and betroth
Brynhild gives us themselves.
a dissertation on
runes which JRRT
omits.
Volsunga Saga gives 15-17 Brynhild warns Sigurd of all the
the couple a things he shouldn't do while he
daughter Aslaug, is seeking his kingdom. Sigurd
who marries Ragnar winds up doing them all. She
Lodbrok. (13) foretells his early death.
18-19 They plight their troth a second
time. (14)
20-22 They do not spend the night on the
mountain nor consummate the match.
(15) They set off in company, but
soon part. Brynhild will not marry
Sigurd until he attains his destined
kingdom. That is Brynhild all over.
We will see this fatal pride again.
Sigurd does not argue; he always
does what is asked of him.
Volsunga Saga now 23 Sigurd goes to the court of the
re-introduces Burgundian kings, the Niflungs.
Brynhild & her Brynhild returns to her own land
domestic sister as (wherever that may be), where she
though Sigurd had seems to be held in high honor
never seen her (she claims to have formerly
before. been a queen, which does not
quite jibe with the Valkyrie
story).
The Lay of the Volsungs: VII. Gudrun
In the source, she 1-6 At some length, Gudrun recounts to
recounts this dream her mother Grimhild her prophetic
to Brynhild. dream of the disasters to follow.
Grimhild makes light of it.
The main narrative 7-10 Gjuki is king of the Burgundians (or
of Nibelungenlied Niflungs, or Gjukings); his wife
begins here, with Grimhild is an aged witch. Their
Hogni (Hagen) being sons are Gunnar and Hogni; their
a vassal, not a daughter is Gudrun. Gutthorm is
brother. a step-son, perhaps even a bastard.
Their court is rich and glorious,
but at constant war with the
Huns. (16)
In Thiorekssaga, 11-13 Sigurd arrives at Gjuki's court,
Sigurd likewise bearing the treasure.
(after various
adventures) comes
to Gunnar. (17) 14-15 At the welcoming feast, Gunnar sings
of wars when the invading Huns first
encountered the Goths, then of later
wars in which Niflungs slew Atli's
uncle.
16-19 Sigurd sings of killing the dragon,
recovering the gold, and encountering
Brynhild.
20-24 Sigurd is an instant success. He
becomes the Niflungs's champion
warrior; they award him gold and
honors; they call him king. This
is a titular honor (Gjuki retains
political control), but it seems
to be enough to satisfy Brynhild's
stipulation.
25-32 They loan him an army and a fleet to
win back Volsung's former kingdom,
but he finds the court desolate and
the tree dead. Grimnir (Odin) warns
him that his fate now lies elsewhere.
The anticlimax is that they all go
back home and forget about Volsung's
kingdom.
33-34 Grimhild decides to marry Sigurd
off to Gudrun, and persuades her
children to agree. She wants this
valuable champion in the family.
35 Sigurd begins to think that it is
time to claim Brynhild.
36-39 Grimhild gives Sigurd a magic
potion which causes him to forget
all about Brynhild and his vows to
her. Gudrun appears and dazzles
Sigurd.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VIII. Brynhild Betrayed
In Thiorekssaga, 1-6 Brynhild waits two years at her
Sigurd knowingly court, and develops a reputation
breaks his for wealth and splendor. Kings
betrothal to come courting her, but she
Brynhild and sends them packing or kills
marries Gudrun, them off. The last king is Odin
just because it is in disguise. He tells her that
a more advantageous she must marry within two years,
alliance. Brynhild and (for a second time (18))
marries Gunnar on hedges her in flickering flame.
the rebound, but as
in Nibelungenlied
she rebuffs him on
the wedding night
and hangs him from
a peg. She is not
tamed until Gunnar
authorizes Sigurd
to rape her.
Volsunga Saga gives 7-11 Meanwhile Sigurd marries Gudrun and
the couple a son swears an oath of brotherhood with
Sigmund, whom JRRT Gunnar and Hogni (but not with
ignores. Gutthorm). Gudrun loves and hero-
worships Sigurd. He returns her love
dutifully, but by his own later
admission he is always casting sheep's
eyes at Brynhild.
In Nibelungenlied 12-24 Grimhild urges Gunnar to enhance
the heroes travel his prestige by marrying Brynhild.
to Iceland where Gunnar, Hogni, and Sigurd set off
Sigurd, using an to find her. Gunnar's horse Goti
invisibility cloak is daunted by the flame, and throws
that he got from Gunnar. Gunnar borrows Grani from
the dragon, Sigurd. Grani will not bear him
overcomes Brynhild either. (19) Not without some
in athletic disdain, Sigurd agrees to woo
contests (Gunnar Brynhild for Gunnar. The two of
going through the them magically exchange appearances.
motions). Gunnar
marries her. For
three nights
running she ties
him up and hangs
him from the wall.
Sigurd has to
wrestle Brynhild
down so that Gunnar
can deflower her.
In Nibelungenlied 25-32 Sigurd crosses the flame and accosts
Brynhild is Brynhild, who of course was expecting
encouraged to think Sigurd not Gunnar. Now she is caught
that Sigurd is between conflicting oaths--to marry
Gunnar's vassal. Sigurd, and to marry whomever crosses
This ineradicable the flame. She decides to accept
delusion, not any Gunnar. They spend the night
love for Sigurd, together, but Sigurd lays the
is the reason she sword Gram between them so that
subsequently claims the marriage-by-proxy is not
social precedence consummated. (20)
over Gudrun.
For the wide 33 In the morning, while Brynhild is
variations in the still sleeping, Sigurd takes a gold
ring story at this ring from her finger (presumably one
point, between and that he himself had given her at
even within the their first encounter) and instead
different sources, sets the ring Andvaranaut on her
see Tom Shippey, finger. Brynhild will not notice
"The Problem of the switch until Gudrun points
the Rings: Tolkien it out later.
and Wagner."
34 They set a date for the wedding
and separate. The Niflungs return
to prepare the wedding feast.
The Lay of the Volsungs: IX. Strife
1-3 Brynhild arrives at the Niflung
court and duly marries Gunnar.
4-5 The potion of forgetfulness wears
off. Sigurd remembers that he was
supposed to have married Brynhild,
not Gudrun. (21)
6 Sigurd goes out hunting to think
it all over.
In Nibelungenlied, 7 Meanwhile, the two queens go wading
the ladies quarrel in the Rhine to shampoo their hair.
at the church (23) Brynhild orders Gudrun to go
door. (22) downstream. As the senior queen,
Brynhild will wash only in fresh
water, not in Gudrun's rinsings.
In Thiorekssaga, 8-10 They quarrel. Gudrun claims to have
the quarrel of the the better man, because Gunnar feared
queens occurs much to ride the flickering flame. She
as in the points to the ring on Brynhild's
Nibelungenlied, and finger, Andvaranaut. It could only
Hogni spears Sigurd have come from Sigurd. This is proof
in the back. When that it was Sigurd not Gunnar who
he rubbed on the won Brynhild.
dragon blood he
hadn't been able to 11-20 Brynhild is mortified. She retires
reach between the to her bower and goes into a deep
shoulder blades. depression, not eating or drinking.
She still loves Sigurd, but she has
broken her oath to him, as he to her.
She can never have him now, so she
wants him dead. She hates Gudrun for
having taken her place. She despises
Gunnar as a coward and a cheat. When
Gunnar visits her to find out what
is wrong, she tells him so to his
face.
21-34 Sigurd returns from hunting, and he
too visits Brynhild. He explains
about the potion of forgetfulness.
(24) While in his right mind, Sigurd
had loved Brynhild exclusively. He
loves her still. Brynhild accepts
the explanation, so far as it goes.
It does not mend matters much. Sigurd
proposes a menage a trois; she will
have none of it. He even offers to
kill Gunnar and ditch Gudrun.
Brynhild rejects this because it
would make a traitor of Sigurd
(whom she loves) and an innocent
victim of Gunnar (whom she despises).
In Nibelungenlied, 35-37 Sigurd is desolated. He reproaches the
he goes so far as remorseful Gudrun for having provoked
to beat her. Brynhild.
38-42 Sigurd advises Gunnar to patch up
matters with Brynhild, offering cash
compensation. She refuses scornfully.
43-44 Brynhild lies to Gunnar, telling him
that Sigurd has cuckolded him and has
bragged about it to Gudrun. Gunnar
must kill Sigurd! If not, Brynhild
will leave Gunnar. This ploy suits
Brynhild because it leaves Sigurd
the innocent victim and Gunnar the
despised oathbreaker. The down side
is that it makes Brynhild a guilty
plotter and self-confessed whore,
rather than an innocent victim of
fate. This guilt she grimly accepts.
45-50 Now it is Gunnar's turn to be caught
between conflicting obligations. As
a wronged husband he must kill
Sigurd, but as Sigurd's blood-brother
he cannot do so without deep
disgrace. He consults with Hogni, who
tells him outright that Brynhild is
lying. Gunnar will not believe him.
He resolves to kill Sigurd and brazen
out the disgrace. Besides, Gunnar is
tired of sharing the kingship with an
outsider. Also, he covets the hoard.
Various sources 51-60 Assassinating Sigurd is easier said
have Sigurd killed than done. The step-brother Gutthorm
by Gunnar or by is available, and he is not a sworn
Hogni; outdoors brother of Sigurd's. Gunnar bribes
while hunting or him, then psyches him up with another
indoors lying in magic potion. At a first attempt,
Gudrun's arms. In Gutthorm reviles Sigurd but is
Nibelungenlied, frightened off by Sigurd's bare
Hogni tricks Gudrun words. For his second attempt, the
into revealing coward attacks Sigurd as he is
Sigurd's one sleeping beside Gudrun. Sigurd is
vulnerable spot so mortally wounded but succeeds in
he can be speared killing Gutthorm anyway by flinging
in the back. Gram at him. Half of Gutthorm falls
on this side of the threshold and
the other half on the other side.
61-63 The dying Sigurd magnanimously
appeals to Gudrun to go easy on
her brothers. She will try her
best to honor this last request.
In Volsunga Saga, 64-71 Gudrun mourns. Brynhild laughs, and
Gudrun bears to curses the Niflungs. She declares
Sigurd a posthumous her intention of leaving Gunnar. He
daughter Swanhild. begs her to stay, but Hogni is glad
to get rid of her.
In Nibelungenlied, 72-76 Brynhild falls on her sword. (25)
Brynhild survives Before dying she asks to be burned
Sigurd's death but on the same pyre as Sigurd--with
take little part in the sword between them! Thus she
the rest of the gloats to Gunnar that Sigurd's
story. supposed seduction has been a lie.
77-82 The Lay ends with the arrival in
Valholl of Sigurd and Brynhild.
All the heroes have been eagerly
awaiting him throughout the poem.
At the Last Battle it will be
Brynhild who will buckle on his
sword, and Sigurd will save the
world.
The Lay of Gudrun
1-2 Gudrun grieves, wandering alone in
the woods.
The German 3-9 Atli, king of the Huns (the
sources, unlike the historical Attila) has long
Norse, treat Attila been an enemy of the Niflungs,
as a noble and though Sigurd has hitherto held
generous king. (26) him at bay. He wants the treasure
and he wants Gudrun. He also wants
revenge for the death of his uncle
(27) at the hands of the Niflungs
(offstage and much earlier). He
bethinks him that Sigurd is gone.
He threatens war, but also offers
marriage to Gudrun. Grimhild likes
the idea.
10-16 Gudrun has passed through the
worst stages of grief and is
now living in a cottage in the
woods, embroidering a sort of
Bayeux Tapestry displaying the
heroic deeds of Sigurd. The poet
lovingly describes the tapestry,
which gives him the chance to
recapitulate the events of the
former Lay.
In the Elder Edda 17-28 Grimhild persuades Gudrun to accept
Grimhild gives Atli's offer. She does so reluctantly
Gudrun one of her --only as a patriotic duty and only
patented potions after much soul-searching. Gunnar and
to induce her to Hogni agree. Nothing is said of Gjuki.
accept Atli's suit. He seems to have died in the interim
and to have left the throne to
Gunnar. (28)
Atlakvioa: Gudrun 29-32 Gudrun goes off to Hunland to be its
and Atli have a queen, and Atli makes peace with the
horrible domestic Niflungs. Gudrun makes a sincere
life together. effort to be a good wife to Atli.
For his part, Atli is besotted with
her.
33-36 Atli's desire for the treasure
overcomes his love for Gudrun.
She overhears him talking in
his sleep, and realizes that
he plans to break his treaty
and attack the Niflungs.
In Thiorekssaga, 37-43 Atli sends an embassy to Gunnar,
Atli & Gudrun headed by one Vingi. He offers
jointly invite the treasure and territory, provided the
Niflungs so as to Niflungs accept Atli as overlord.
ambush them and get Vingi is entertained at a feast
the gold. Numerous but no decision is reached at first.
subsidiary
characters & 44-45 Vingi carries two gifts from Gudrun
adventures are in his diplomatic pouch: runes (29)
introduced. of healing for Gunnar, and a ring
for Hogni. (30)
In Nibelungenlied, 46-48 Grimhild, Gunnar, and Hogni consult.
so far from warning Gunnar is first inclined to reject
off the Niflungs the offer. Hogni notices that
Gudrun entices them Gudrun's ring has a wolf hair
to Hunland to get wound around it, presumably as a
revenge on warning. Grimhild notices that
Hogni. (31) there are earlier runes, an
unreadable palimpsest, on Gunnar's
gift. Someone (Vingi?) has distorted
Gudrun's original runes, whatever
they may have been.
49-54 Gunnar tells Vingi he rejects the
offer. Vingi mocks him for being
under his mother's thumb, then ups
the ante. Atli, he says, is growing
old and wishes Gunnar to serve as
regent of the Huns during the
minority of Atli's own sons. It is
not clear to what extent Vingi is
following instructions, and to what
extent he is making up these lies
on his own hook. Lies they are, as
the poet clearly tells us.
55-56 This time Gunnar, well on in drink,
agrees to follow Vingi back to
Hunland. Grimhild does not agree.
Hogni does not believe Vingi and
he knows that what they are about
to do is disastrous. He does it
anyway--classic hero behavior in
the North. Gunnar is king and must
be supported, even when he is drunk
and foolish.
57-58 Hogni remarks that always in the
past they have heeded their mother,
and she has led them to disaster;
now that she is right, they pay her
no attention. Grimhild is a malicious
but short-sighted intriguer; always
she looks to the Niflungs's immediate
advantage but never beyond that.
Vigni swears the runes are genuine.
In Thiorekssaga, 59-67 Gunnar and Hogni travel with few
there are no companions to Hunland. They find the
hostilities upon gates barred. Vingi parleys at the
arrival and gate and threatens them with hanging.
everyone sits down For all his diplomatic immunity, the
to a very strained Niflungs hang him in the sight of
feast. Unable to Atli.
get any of Atli's
henchmen to attack
Hogni, Gudrun
precipitates the
fight by tricking
her young son into
landing a punch on
him. Hogni slices
off the boy's head
for his pains, and
tosses it into
Gudrun's lap.
In Nibelungenlied 68-78 The Huns attack. The Niflungs beat
and Thiorekssaga, them back and enter the fortress.
Atli stands above Atli appears, and demands the gold
the fray dithering as ransom. They refuse, and the
while his vassals battle resumes.
(32) do the actual
fighting. 79-80 Gudrun in her bower hears it
all. She agonizes between
loyalty to her first husband,
loyalty to her current husband,
and loyalty to her brothers.
81-86 At Gudrun's urging, Goths in Atli's
service switch sides and help the
Niflungs. Gunnar welcomes them with a
song, recalling old wars when Goths
and Burgundians united against the
Huns.
87-88 Hogni's son Snaevar is slain.
89-93 The new allies turn the tide of
battle. The Niflungs are winning,
when Gudrun appears and begs her
brothers to let Atli escape. They
do so, dismissing him with scorn.
Atli ungratefully uses the respite
to recruit reinforcements. Meanwhile
Goths & Niflungs cast the dead out
of the hall.
94-112 Atli and his men now regain the
upper hand. In a night attack
they besiege the Niflungs in the
hall. After five days the Niflungs
are in desperate straits, reduced
to drinking the blood of the dead.
Inexplicably, Atli despairs of
defeating them. Atli's counselor
Beiti advises him to fire the hall.
He does so despite the shame. (33)
The Niflung brothers are forced out
and captured.
113- Atli throws Hogni in jail, but
116 brings Gunnar bound before Gudrun.
He expects she will gloat; after
all, he has revenged her for
Sigurd. Instead she begs Atli
to spare him.
Thiorekssaga omits 117- Even at this eleventh hour Atli
these refinements 120 is willing to release the Niflungs
and kills off all in return for the treasure (so at
the Niflung least he pretends). It has been
brothers, either hidden in the Rhine somewhere.
during the battle Only Gunnar and Hogni know where.
or at the hands of Gunnar would surrender his half,
Gudrun. Reflecting if only he could do so without
rather too late disclosing Hogni's half too. (34) Of
that his queen has course, if Gunnar held Hogni's heart
caused a lot of in his hand, he would then own both
bloodshed, Atli has halves of the treasure. (35)
one of his henchmen Bargaining would become easier, he
(Theodoric as it hints. Gudrun thinks poorly of this
happens) cut her up proposal--she wants to save
into little pieces. both brothers, not just one.
121- Atli is delighted to have driven a
124 wedge between Gunnar and Hogni. Still,
he wishes to save Hogni's life in
order to conciliate Gudrun. He tries
to deceive Gunnar by giving him the
heart of Hjalli. (36) Gunnar detects
the imposture because the heart
quakes so.
125-128 Finally Gunnar is given the genuine
heart of Hogni. (37) Gunnar
recognizes it, for Hogni's heart
does not quake. This is all the
obituary Hogni gets, but for a
thousand years it has been
considered the height of Norse
sang-froid.
129-131 Gunnar is now the only one alive who
knows where the gold is hid. He
reneges on his promise to Atli,
refusing to reveal the hiding place
after all. At this point the only
revenge Gunnar can get is to deny
the treasure to the Huns, and this
he is determined to do even if it
means torture and death.
132-139 Atli throws Gunnar into a snake pit.
By way of a life-line Gudrun tosses
him a harp. Gunnar's harping puts the
snakes to sleep (39)--all except the
biggest, which stings him to death.
140 The murder of her brothers Gunnar and
Hogni is the final straw for Gudrun,
who now at last renounces her wifely
obligations. She determines upon
revenge. She is a sweet girl really,
(40) but you can push her only so
far before she goes over the edge
altogether.
141-147 Atli has the bodies burned in a
pyre, then returns for a victory
feast. (41) Gudrun serves the drink.
When all have feasted, she announces
that she has killed Erp and Eitill,
her two sons by Atli. She has cooked
them up for the cannibal feast.
Nibelungenlied & 148-152 Atli swoons in horror and the
Thiorekssaga leave servants put him to bed. Gudrun
Attila alive at barges into his chamber, wakens
story's end, thus him from his drunken stupor,
getting wrong the mocks him, and stabs him dead.
only fact about the He dies reviling her.
whole affair that
ancient historians 153-155 Gudrun sets the second hall
agree upon. afire. (43)
Volsunga Saga 156-165 Gudrun takes to wandering in the
lets her live woods alone. After recapitulating her
to remarry. history in song, she drowns herself
in the river.
166 The gold is still in the Rhine. All
the characters are dead; not even a
Fortinbras is left standing. Odin has
gotten what he wanted. Sigurd is in
Valholl, eagerly awaiting the Last
Battle. Sub species Aeternitas, all
has ended happily. The poet dismisses
his audience.
Rejected
Elements Strophe Analogs in JRRT
The Lay of the Volsungs: Beginning
1-9 Silmarillion:
Ainulindale
10-15
16-20 Turin Turambar is
similarly reserved for
the Last Battle in the
Silmarillion.
The Lay of the Volsungs: I. Andvari's Gold
Nibelungenlied only 1-6 The Lord of the Rings
begins at a much [LotR]: Gollum fishing
later point. in the Pool of Henneth
Annun.
7-8 Oin, father to Andvari,
lends his name (but
nothing else) to one
of the companions of
Thorin Oakenshield.
Nibelungenlied also 9-10 Farmer Giles makes no
has a dwarf, such mistake; he leaves
Alberich, and a Chrysophylax enough
treasure. Details gold to keep him
are different and respectable.
the treatment is
far less extensive.
11-12 For the much-misunderstood
relationship between this ring
and Sauron's, see Tom Shippey
("Problem" 97).
13-15 The poem "The Hoard" in The
Adventures of Tom Bombadil
follows the history of a similar
hoard.
The Lay of the Volsungs: II. Signy
In Beowulf it is 1-4 LotR: The White Tree in the
Sigmund who court of Minas Tirith
slays the dragon,
and nothing is said
of any son Sigurd.
5-9
10-20 The name Grima in LotR
comes from the same root
("mask") as Grimnir.
The Sword in the Stone
motif, so prominent in
the Arthurian story, is not
used in Tolkien's other
fiction.
21-25
26-29 Silmarillion: Finrod
Felagund and his
companions, serially
slain by werewolves in
the dungeons of
Morgoth.
30-32 The incest of Turin
Turambar in The
Silmarillion is rather to
be compared to that of
Kullervo in the
Kalevala.
In Volsunga Saga 33-36
Signy has four
other sons by
Siggeir, who all
come to bad ends
at the hands of
Sinfjotli and
Sigmund.
37-41
The Lay of the Volsungs: III. The Death of Sinfjotli
JRRT greatly 1-4
compressed Volsunga
Saga, where the
queen's name is
Borghild. The story
of her son Helgi
Hundingsbani is
omitted as
irrelevant.
At the third 5-10
attempt, Volsunga
Saga's Sigmund
advises his son to
strain the drink
through his beard.
This detail, though
picturesque, makes
no sense; JRRT
omits it.
11-13
The Lay of the Volsungs: IV. Sigurd Born
1-4
5-9
10-13 The shards of
Isildur's Narsil are
similarly preserved
to be reforged as
Aragorn's Anduril.
14-18
The Lay of the Volsungs: V. Regin
Thiorekssaga has 1-2
a very different
childhood account
of Sigurd, who is
nonetheless still
the son of Sigmund.
The infant sails
down a river in a
glass basket, is
raised by a doe,
then found and
adopted by Mimir.
In Thiorekssaga, 3-6
Regin is the dragon
and the smith is
called Mimir.
Sigurd kills the
dragon, then kills 7-12
Mimir, then
betroths himself
to the Valkyrie 13-14
Brynhild.
15-16
In Volsunga Saga, 17-20 LotR: Elendil's
Sigurd will pursue sword Narsil,
no dragon until he later reforged
has avenged his Aragorn's sword
father. JRRT drops Anduril.
this.
21-25
Nibelungenlied 26-29 The slayings of
knows that Sigurd Glaurund and
killed a dragon, Smaug.
and says so briefly
in a flashback. The
horny skin is
important here; a
vital spot between
the shoulder blades
is left
unprotected. (6)
In Volsunga Saga 30-34 The riddling
the riddles are conversation
interesting in between Bilbo &
themselves but Smaug in Hobbit.
irrelevant to the
plot, so dropped 35-38
by JRRT.
39-40
41
42-44 The talking thrush
(9) and raven that help
Bilbo in Hobbit.
45
In Volsunga Saga, 46-48 LotR: Aragorn &
he saves part of the hobbits load
the heart to give the trolls' gold on
later to Gudrun. Bill the Pony.
Turin also had a
Helm of Horror.
49-54
The Lay of the Volsungs: VI. Brynhild
1-4 Tolkien makes no
use of the
Sleeping Beauty
motif in his other
fiction.
5-6
Nibelungenlied 7-8 Brynhild has
knows nothing of some
Valkyries. Its resemblances to
Brynhild is an Eowyn in LotR.
Amazon and can only
be subdued by
deflowering her.
She is Queen of
Iceland and sister
of Attila,
stretching dynastic
geography to the
limit.
In Nibelungenlied, 9-10
the two first meet
in Iceland, where
Brynhild's prior
knowledge of Sigurd
is tantalizingly
unclear.
In Volsunga Saga 11-14
Brynhild gives us
a dissertation on
runes which JRRT
omits.
Volsunga Saga gives 15-17
the couple a
daughter Aslaug,
who marries Ragnar
Lodbrok. (13)
18-19
20-22 Similarly in LotR
Elrond enjoins
Aragorn not to marry
Arwen until he
becomes King of both
Arnor and Gondor.
Volsunga Saga now 23
re-introduces
Brynhild & her
domestic sister as
though Sigurd had
never seen her
before.
The Lay of the Volsungs: VII. Gudrun
In the source, she 1-6
recounts this dream
to Brynhild.
The main narrative 7-10
of Nibelungenlied
begins here, with
Hogni (Hagen) being
a vassal, not a
brother.
In Thiorekssaga, 11-13
Sigurd likewise
(after various
adventures) comes
to Gunnar. (17) 14-15
16-19
20-24
25-32 LotR: The dead
White Tree in the
courtyard of Minas
Tirith.
33-34
35
36-39
The Lay of the Volsungs: VIII. Brynhild Betrayed
In Thiorekssaga, 1-6
Sigurd knowingly
breaks his
betrothal to
Brynhild and
marries Gudrun,
just because it is
a more advantageous
alliance. Brynhild
marries Gunnar on
the rebound, but as
in Nibelungenlied
she rebuffs him on
the wedding night
and hangs him from
a peg. She is not
tamed until Gunnar
authorizes Sigurd
to rape her.
Volsunga Saga gives 7-11
the couple a son
Sigmund, whom JRRT
ignores.
In Nibelungenlied 12-24
the heroes travel
to Iceland where
Sigurd, using an
invisibility cloak
that he got from
the dragon,
overcomes Brynhild
in athletic
contests (Gunnar
going through the
motions). Gunnar
marries her. For
three nights
running she ties
him up and hangs
him from the wall.
Sigurd has to
wrestle Brynhild
down so that Gunnar
can deflower her.
In Nibelungenlied 25-32
Brynhild is
encouraged to think
that Sigurd is
Gunnar's vassal.
This ineradicable
delusion, not any
love for Sigurd,
is the reason she
subsequently claims
social precedence
over Gudrun.
For the wide 33
variations in the
ring story at this
point, between and
even within the
different sources,
see Tom Shippey,
"The Problem of
the Rings: Tolkien
and Wagner."
34
The Lay of the Volsungs: IX. Strife
1-3
4-5
6
In Nibelungenlied, 7
the ladies quarrel
at the church
door. (22)
In Thiorekssaga, 8-10
the quarrel of the
queens occurs much
as in the
Nibelungenlied, and
Hogni spears Sigurd
in the back. When
he rubbed on the
dragon blood he
hadn't been able to 11-20
reach between the
shoulder blades.
21-34
In Nibelungenlied, 35-37
he goes so far as
to beat her.
38-42
43-44
45-50
Various sources 51-60
have Sigurd killed
by Gunnar or by
Hogni; outdoors
while hunting or
indoors lying in
Gudrun's arms. In
Nibelungenlied,
Hogni tricks Gudrun
into revealing
Sigurd's one
vulnerable spot so
he can be speared
in the back.
61-63
In Volsunga Saga, 64-71
Gudrun bears to
Sigurd a posthumous
daughter Swanhild.
In Nibelungenlied, 72-76
Brynhild survives
Sigurd's death but
take little part in
the rest of the
story.
77-82
The Lay of Gudrun
1-2
The German 3-9
sources, unlike the
Norse, treat Attila
as a noble and
generous king. (26)
10-16 The tapestry is
reminiscent of the one
in Meduseld depicting
the coming of Eorl the
Young out of the North,
in LotR.
In the Elder Edda 17-28
Grimhild gives
Gudrun one of her
patented potions
to induce her to
accept Atli's suit.
Atlakvioa: Gudrun 29-32
and Atli have a
horrible domestic
life together.
33-36
In Thiorekssaga, 37-43 Vingi's seductive offer
Atli & Gudrun recalls that of Sauron's
jointly invite the ambassador to Dain, as
Niflungs so as to reported by Gimli at
ambush them and get the Council.
the gold. Numerous
subsidiary
characters & 44-45
adventures are
introduced.
In Nibelungenlied, 46-48
so far from warning
off the Niflungs
Gudrun entices them
to Hunland to get
revenge on
Hogni. (31)
49-54
55-56
57-58 This is reminiscent of Bilbo's remark
to Gandalf at the Council of Elrond:
All Gandalf's former advice has
been unpleasant, but good; now that
his advice is pleasant, Bilbo pretends
to suspect it.
In Thiorekssaga, 59-67 LotR: The
there are no Mouth of
hostilities upon Sauron.
arrival and
everyone sits down
to a very strained
feast. Unable to
get any of Atli's
henchmen to attack
Hogni, Gudrun
precipitates the
fight by tricking
her young son into
landing a punch on
him. Hogni slices
off the boy's head
for his pains, and
tosses it into
Gudrun's lap.
In Nibelungenlied 68-78
and Thiorekssaga,
Atli stands above
the fray dithering
while his vassals
(32) do the actual
fighting. 79-80
81-86
87-88
89-93
94-112
113-
116
Thiorekssaga omits 117- The situation in
these refinements 120 Hobbit following the
and kills off all death of Smaug
the Niflung depicts a similar
brothers, either tangle of conflicting
during the battle legal claims to a
or at the hands of treasure.
Gudrun. Reflecting
rather too late
that his queen has
caused a lot of
bloodshed, Atli has
one of his henchmen
(Theodoric as it
happens) cut her up
into little pieces.
121-
124
125-128
129-131
132-139
140
141-147
Nibelungenlied & 148-152
Thiorekssaga leave
Attila alive at
story's end, thus
getting wrong the
only fact about the
whole affair that
ancient historians 153-155
agree upon.
Volsunga Saga 156-165
lets her live
to remarry.
166
(1) This of course makes Sigurd a precursor to Christ, and his
story an adumbration of the Gospel. Having single-handedly turned
Beowulf into a Christian poem, Tolkien now does the same to Sigurd.
Tolkien often found fragments of Christian truth in pagan myth,
however far from Christianity the originals might be. It would be
interesting to have C.S. Lewis's take on all this. Christopher
Tolkien is mum, considering such speculation "outside [his]
editorial limits" (S&G 185).
(2) In his prose introduction to this section, JRRT rather oddly
calls Hreidmar a "demon" (66). In Volsunga Saga he is merely a
well-off farmer.
(3) The name Volsung is used throughout the lay as though it were
the name of a dynasty or of a chosen race, as well as the name of
this particular representative of the dynasty. JRRT believed that
the word derived from a root meaning to choose (S&G 54). To some
extent the Volsungs are equated with the Jews of the Old Testament,
as viewed retrospectively by Christians.
(4) JRRT does not tell us what has happened. We know (from Volsunga
Saga) that Signy has smeared Sigmund's mouth with honey. The
werewolf has a sweet tooth, and goes for the mouth first. Sigmund
bites out the wolf's tongue by the roots, killing the wolf and
bursting his bonds at the same time. Signy has maneuvered to
sacrifice nine brothers in order to save the tenth.
(5) With wine, beer, and ale; JRRT omits mead.
(6) This is the same basic idea as Achilles's unprotected heel.
This motif must go back at least as far as the common Indo-
European ancestor of Greek and Norse.
(7) In Volsunga Saga Sigurd first calls himself the "Noble Beast,"
somewhat as Ulysses identifies himself to Polyphemus as "No Man."
JRRT drops this epithet but retains the initial riddling response.
The idea seems to be that if a dying enemy knows your right name he
can curse you by it, and such curses will bite. In both versions
the hero, without explanation, goes on to give his right name after
all, rather spoiling the effect.
(8) Why? We are not told. The plot requires that the heart be
roasted, but the compiler of Volsunga Saga gives Sigurd no good
motive to comply. Immediately after their quarrel we are asked to
believe that Sigurd allows Regin to participate in the cookery and
even to dictate the recipe. Tolkien leaves this problem as he found
it.
(9) These stanzas are in a different meter (ljooahattr) from the
rest of the poem.
(10) Tolkien leaves this enigmatic. Perhaps Sigurd understands the
words (which is more than most people make of bird chatter) but
does not realize the implications of what the birds say. The birds
describe Brynhild's situation recognizably but do not mention her
by name.
(11) We are not told why he does so. Perhaps he is merely curious;
perhaps he has been paying more attention to the birds than Tolkien
lets on. Perhaps because of his hardened skin, he seems to
experience no difficulty crossing the flames.
(12) Sigibert was successful in war and defeated the Huns in
battle. He was assassinated by an in-law. Brunhild, described as
wise and beautiful, mourned him deeply. Both were involved in plots
and assassination attempts. In her old age her enemies had her
dragged to death by a wild horse. See St. Gregory of Tours. Gregory
annoyingly leaves out Brunhild's horrible death because at the time
of writing it hadn't happened yet.
(13) Notorious semi-legendary Viking; ancestor to the kings of
Norway.
(14) The redundancy is strange. Perhaps JRRT fears that a single
betrothal would be taken for perfunctory prophecy-fulfillment.
Lovers proverbially delight in repeated avowals of love.
(15) This is crucial to the plot, since Brynhild will later lie to
Gunnar about it.
(16) All these people except Hogni are actual personages--much
transformed from their historical prototypes.
(17) The Gudrun character in this saga is called Grimhild, not to
be confused with the Grimhild character in Volsunga Saga.
(18) The two enchanted sleeps presumably derive from an early
conflation of two different versions of the same incident. The
duplication is already entrenched in the Elder Edda, too deeply for
JRRT to uproot it without fatally disrupting the plot. JRRT goes so
far as to add a third awakening (S&G 160); and this he emphasizes,
very unusually, by a marginal annotation. Perhaps this is meant to
distract our attention.
(19) Brynhild later blames Gunnar for cowardice in not facing the
flames. At the time, the poet diplomatically lays all the blame on
the horses.
(20) This is crucial to JRRT's plot, since Brynhild will later lie
to Gunnar about it.
(21) At this point in the Lay, Tom Shippey points out a metrical
error, the only one in the poem. The second half-line alliterates
where it should not: "oaths were remembered | all unfulfilled"
("Tolkien out-Wagners Wagner" 5). Sigurd is so distressed that the
poem falters in its prosody. Perhaps JRRT wishes to alert the
reader, "Here is the turning point of the whole poem!" JRRT demands
a very alert reader.
(22) Because, Shippey says, skinny-dipping queens offended
medieval ideas of decorum ("Problem" 103). Why, when the Norse and
German poets are near-contemporaries? The Norse poets seem to have
had a better feel for historicity ("The past is another country,
they do things differently there"); hence they may have felt less
need to modernize old stories. Perhaps German courts were more
elegant than Scandinavian ones of the same period, or perhaps group
nudity was more acceptable among a people who may already have
borrowed the sauna bath from their Finnish neighbors. Swimsuits
were not invented till the 18th-century.
(23) Sixth-century Burgundians dressed their hair with butter and
would have benefited from occasional shampoos. St. Sidonius
Appolinaris, quoted by Christopher Tolkien (S&G 339).
(24) How does he know that his temporary selective amnesia had been
caused by Grimhild's magic potion? Or does he know? We are not
told. He seems to bear no special grudge against Grimhild.
(25) Shippey calls this very close to suttee ("Tolkien out-Wagners
Wagner" 3). Great queens who die for love are thin on the ground,
even in fiction. In real life I can think only of Sophonisba,
Cleopatra, and Yang Kuei-Fei.
(26) A result of their different history. Ethnic Huns (fugitive
remnants escaping out of far China) constituted only a cadre within
Attila's empire. The Huns prevailed by a classic technique: first
you subdue your weaker neighbors (mostly Germans of one sort or
another). You do not exterminate them; you recruit them into your
army with the promise of victory. With this strengthened army you
then repeat the cycle on the next set of neighbors, and so ad
infinitum. The Ostrogoths and other eastern Germans were willing
allies and tributaries to Attila. Even Attila's name is German (=
"Daddy"); his own real name has been forgotten. The medieval
Germans inherited this favorable view of Attila. The medieval
Norse, although never in direct contact with the Huns, inherited
the hostile view of the western Germans (Visigoths, Franks, et
al.), who had been mercilessly massacred by Attila's hordes. During
the two World Wars, the Allies called the Germans "Huns"; it was
not a misnomer. See Maenchen; Wolfram.
(27) The brother of Budli, who here is Atli's father. The
historical Bleda was not Attila's father but his elder brother and
co-king. Attila himself is strongly suspected by modern historians
of having murdered Bleda.
(28) Gunnar must therefore have lived down the disgrace of killing
Sigurd. Probably he has succeeded in casting all the blame on the
conveniently-dead Gutthorm.
(29) Runes were used for magic and for inscriptions, especially on
tombstones. They were never used for correspondence, nor to record
commercial transactions or literary compositions. If Gudrun sent a
letter in runes, she was far ahead of her time. When the historical
Justa Grata Honoria sent her famous love letter to Attila (also
enclosing a ring, by the way), she was writing in Latin. Attila is
known to have employed secretaries and interpreters to handle his
Latin and Greek correspondence.
(30) The ring is probably not Andvaranaut, but who knows? We have
not been told what became in the end of that evil bauble.
(31) In the Norse sources (Eddas and Sagas), Attila is malevolent,
Gudrun is benevolent, and her loyalty to her reconciled brothers is
stronger than her desire for revenge. In the German sources
(Nibelungenlied and Thiorekssaga) the reverse is true.
(32) Including two historical personages who in real life had no
connection to Attila: Ermanaric and Theodoric the Great. These
worthies flourished several generations before and after Attila
respectively.
(33) The shame lies not in using fire as a weapon, but in firing
his own hall.
(34) Gunnar's pretended legal scruples are disingenuous. Atli is
already de jure owner. Gudrun inherits the treasure from Sigurd.
During her first widowhood, her person and property revert to the
guardianship of Gunnar and Hogni. The latter have a fiduciary
responsibility to preserve the treasure for her, instead of which
they fraudulently sink it in the Rhine--precisely so that she will
not bring it to Atli upon her second marriage, as should have been
done.
(35) The pretense that Gunnar is more concerned for Hogni's legal
rights than for Hogni's life is ridiculous. Atli takes this to mean
that Gunnar is trying to save his own life by setting Hogni up as
the fall guy. In Strophe 129 we learn different.
(36) Hjalli, Atli's pig keeper or perhaps cook, is not consulted
about this. He objects, but in vain.
(37) Hogni does not resent this cavalier treatment by Gunnar. He is
a hero and has already resolved not to yield the treasure under any
circumstances. Thus his own death is now certain no matter what
Gunnar does.
(38) The fictional Atli destroys a kingdom to recover a dowry he
claims for his marriage to a Burgundian queen. The historical
Attila devastates half of Europe to recover a dowry he claims for
his betrothal to a Roman princess. The story of Attila and Honoria
can be read in any standard history of the period, such as Gibbon
or Bury.
(39) Cf. the effect of Burgundian music upon St. Sidonius
Appolinaris (S&G 339).
(40) Critics who think that Tolkien marginalizes women should
ponder Grimhild, Gudrun, and Brynhild.
(41) Presumably at a spare hall, since the original one has been
burnt. Atli must carry around spare halls the way Sherman carried
around spare railroad tunnels during the Atlanta campaign.
(42) Priscus, quoted in Jordanes, thinks that Attila died of
natural causes aggravated by intemperance, and this view is
endorsed by Christopher Tolkien (S&G 347). For a contrary view,
extended to book length, see Babcock. Babcock also suggests that
the character of Hogni may have been based on the Roman general
Aetius--apparently because both when young had been hostages at the
Hunnish court. It is true that Hogni's name does not alliterate
with those of his three supposed siblings and their father, also
that his name, unlike theirs, is absent from the ancient Burgundian
law codes.
(43) The double burning of Atli's hall, like the double awakening
of Brynhild, must be due to conflating two different versions of
the same event at some time prior to our earliest manuscripts.
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| Title Annotation: | JRR Tolkien's 'The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun' |
|---|---|
| Author: | Berube, Pierre H. |
| Publication: | Mythlore |
| Article Type: | Table |
| Geographic Code: | 1USA |
| Date: | Sep 22, 2009 |
| Words: | 10755 |
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