Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Roles in Tumor Growth, Progression, and Drug Resistance.
1. IntroductionMesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells that can differentiate into various cell types of the mesodermal germ layer. MSCs can also be recruited to the sites of inflammation and tissue repair [1-5]. In addition, they possess multiple biological functions including multilineage differentiation, immunosuppression, and tissue-repair promotion [6-8]. Due to these unique advantages, MSCs have been widely employed in clinical studies [9-15], such as spinal cord injuries, cardiovascular diseases, type I diabetes mellitus, hepatic cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's disease (https://clinicaltrials.gov/).
Recent studies have demonstrated that MSCs can also migrate to the tumor stroma, contributing to the formation of the tumor microenvironment [16-20]. Several studies have shown that MSCs could favor tumor growth directly by producing growth factors or promoting tumor vascularization [21-24]. On the contrary, other groups demonstrated that MSCs suppressed tumor progression [25-29]. However, the exact mechanisms of these opposite effects remain unclear [30]. A large body of MSCs research has focused on MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) and shown that MSC-EVs have functions similar to those of MSCs [31-38], such as repairing tissue damage, suppressing inflammatory responses, and promoting angiogenesis.
MSC-EVs could also be involved in the effects of MSCs on tumor growth and behavior. Several studies describing the influence of MSC-EVs on tumor growth have been reported. Thus, it is reasonable to postulate that MSC-EVs transport key MSC-associated molecules which change the physiology of target cells in a specific manner. MSC-EVs have emerged as a new mechanism of cell-to-cell communication in the development and growth of human malignancies.
In this article, first we will review the composition of MSC-EVs which will be classified based on their molecular contents into four groups: proteins, messenger RNAs (mRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and others. Then the effects of MSC-EVs on cancer development and progression will be highlighted. Finally, we will address the possible molecular mechanisms underlying MSC-EVs-mediated therapeutic effects.
2. Characterization of MSC-EVs
MSC-EVs are a heterogeneous population that mainly include exosomes, microvesicle particles (also known as ectosomes), and apoptotic bodies. Exosomes have a diameter of 30-100 nm, secreted upon fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membranes. Microvesicle particles are usually larger than exosomes (100-1000 nm), resulting from outward budding of plasma membrane. These vesicles are shed into the extracellular space constitutively, or as consequence to physical or chemical stress, hypoxia, and soluble agonists [61, 62]. MSC-EVs contain membranes and cytoplasmic constituents of the original cells. MSCEVs membranes are enriched in sphingomyelin, cholesterol, and ceramide [63]. They are positive for surface markers of MSCs (CD13, CD90, CD29, CD44, CD73, and CD105), but negative for the hematopoietic system-related markers (CD34 and CD45). Moreover, MSC-EVs also express the two characteristic markers of EVs, CD81 and CD63 [39, 40]. According to the different origins of MSCs, MSC-EVs have been divided into different subtypes: human bone marrow-derived MSC-EVs (hBMSC-EVs), human adipose-derived MSC-EVs (hAMSC-EVs), human umbilical cord MSC-EVs (hUCMSC-EVs), mouse bone marrow-derived MSC-EVs (mBMSC-EVs), porcine adipose tissue-derived MSC-EVs (pAMSC-EVs), and so forth. It is difficult to distinguish different subpopulations of MSC-EVs due to their overlapping size, density, and composition [64].
3. Cargoes of MSC-EVs
Several studies have revealed that MSC-EVs contain proteins, lipids, and genetic materials, such as mRNAs and miRNAs [65] (Figure 1). Transfer of these biological materials into adjacent or distant cells may influence the behavior of the recipient cells [32, 36, 66].
3.1. Protein Contents of MSC-EVs. Researchers have identified 730 proteins in hBMSC-EVs according to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis [39]. Functional analysis of the hBMSC-EVs proteome indicates that these proteins are involved in cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, and self-renewal, mainly including surface receptors, signaling molecules, cell adhesion molecules, and MSCs-associated antigens (CD9, CD63, CD81, CD109, CD151, CD248, and CD276) (Table 1). Among these molecules, CD63, CD9, and CD81 are the specific exosomal markers [41]. Moreover, MSC-EVs express some surface molecules, such as CD29, CD73, CD44, and CD105, but do not express the hematopoietic system-related markers, CD34 and CD45 [40]. Tumor supportive factors such as PDGFR-[beta], TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 were also identified in BMSC-EVs [41]. In addition, hAMSC-EVs carried enzymatically active Neprilysin [42], which degrade intracellular and extracellular [beta]-amyloid peptide in neuroblastoma cell lines.
Another study showed that MSC-EVs contained ribonucleoproteins, such as T cell internal antigen-1 (TIA), TIA1-related (TIAR) and AU-rich element binding protein (Hu R), argonaute2 (Ago2), staufen1 (Stau1) and staufen2 (Stau2) proteins, which are implicated in the transport and stability of mRNA [43]. Researchers also discovered that Wnt4 [44], angiogenin, basic fibroblast growth factors (bFGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), the receptor-2 for vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF R2), insulin like growth factor I (IGF-I), Tie-2/TEK, and interleukin-6 (IL-6) [45] were highly expressed in hUCMSC-EVs, which could promote [beta]-catenin nuclear translocation and enhance angiogenesis. It was also reported that MSC exosomes had all seven [alpha]- and seven [beta]-chains of the 20S proteasome. The 20S proteasome was thought to reduce accumulation of denatured or misfolded proteins [67].
3.2. mRNA. Besides proteins, one of the most distinct features of MSC-EVs is that they also contain nucleic acids, including mRNAs and miRNAs [65]. mRNAs and miRNAs can be transferred into a recipient cell located in the tumor microenvironment or at distant sites via fusion of MSC-EVs with the target cell membrane.
It was demonstrated that the mRNAs present in EVs are associated with the mesenchymal phenotype and with several cell functions related to the control of cell differentiation (RAX2, OR11H12, OR2M3, DDN, and GRIN3A), transcription (CLOCK, IRF6, RAX2, TCFP2, and BCL6B), proliferation (SENP2, RBL1, CDC14B, and S100A13), cytoskeleton (DDN, MSN, and CTNNA1), metabolism (ADAM15, FUT3, ADM2, LTA4H, BDH2, and RAB5A) [47], and cell immune regulation (CRLF1, IL1RN, and MT1X) (Table 2). Furthermore, in an in vitro model of renal toxic injury, MSC-EVs were shown to contain mRNA for the insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) receptor. Transfer of IGF-1 receptor mRNA through MSC-EVs induced proliferation of proximal tubular cells [46].
In EVs from porcine adipose tissue-derived MSCs, researchers found distinct classes of RNAs were selectively expressed using high-throughput RNA sequencing [48]. EVs preferentially express mRNAs for angiogenesis, adipogenesis, Golgi apparatus, and transcription factors associated with alternative splicing, apoptosis, and chromosome organization. EVs also express genes involved in TGF-[beta] signaling (TGFB1, TGFB3, FURIN, and ENG).
3.3. MicroRNA. In addition to mRNAs, MSC-EVs have been shown to contain miRNAs as well (Table 3). miRNAs are small noncoding RNAs containing 22 nucleotides [68]. After internalization by target cells, these miRNAs may function as either tumor suppressors or oncogenes, targeting specific mRNAs to mediate inhibition of translation [69].
It has been shown that 79 mature miRNAs could be detected in BMSC-EVs using miRNA arrays [49]. Among these miRNAs, five (miRNA-199b, miRNA-218, miRNA-148a, miRNA-135b, and miRNA-221) were differentially expressed at different time points in BMSC-EVs during osteogenic differentiation. Researchers have also analyzed the miRNA profile of EVs released by two different sources: AMSCs and BMSCs. The study has revealed that MSC-EVs mainly contain mature transcripts. The most expressed miRNAs in AMSC-EVs and BMSC-EVs are highly similar, but their relative proportions are different, raising the possibility that AMSC-EVs and BMSC-EVs may transfer different information [53, 70]. In contrast, EVs secreted by human embryonic stem cell-derived MSCs (hEMSCs-EVs) were enriched in precursor miRNAs rather than mature miRNAs [71]. This suggested that the EVs released by different MSCs might preferentially enclose different forms of miRNA.
Likewise, some other miRNAs, such as miRNA-15a [50], miRNA-16 [52], miRNA-21, miRNA-34a, and miRNA-191 [41, 72], have been identified in MSC-EVs and shown to prevent apoptosis, promote cellular growth [73], reduce cardiac fibrosis [74], and inhibit tumor growth [75] by regulating their target genes in recipient cells. While these miRNAs are not randomly sorted into the MSC-EVs, some miRNAs are present only in the original cells, but not in the MSC-EVs. However, some certain miRNAs are selectively sorted into the MSC-EVs, which are undetectable in the original MSCs, such as miRNA-564, miRNA-223, and miRNA-451. The specific mechanism of MSC-EVs content sorting is not clear.
3.4. Lipid and Other Contents of MSC-EVs. Our knowledge on the lipid composition of MSC-EVs is quite limited. Only a few studies confirmed high level of bioactive lipids such as diacylglycerol and sphingomyelin but trace amounts of dihydroceramide and a-hydroxy-ceramide in MSC-EVs. Furthermore, small molecule metabolite assays have demonstrated the presence of lactic acid and glutamic acid in EVs [41].
4. MSC-EVs Inhibit Proliferation and Promote the Apoptosis of Tumor Cells
The role of MSC-EVs in tumor proliferation has been well documented. However, the mechanisms by which MSC-EVs inhibit tumor growth are still uncertain. It has been demonstrated that MSC-EVs inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 hepatoma, Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), and Skov-3 ovarian cancer cell lines by blocking cell cycle progression in the G0/G1 phase [54]. Gene array profiles showed that the genes related to antiproliferative pathway were upregulated, such as GTP-binding RAS-like 3 (DIRAS3), retinoblastoma-like 1 (Rbl-1), and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2B transcript (CDKN2B), but different genes were modulated in various cancer cell lines. Moreover, EVs could induce apoptosis in HepG2 and Kaposi cells, as demonstrated by TUNEL assay. In contrast, EVs induced necrosis not apoptosis in Skov3 cells and in vivo intratumor administration of EVs in established tumors generated by subcutaneous injection of these cell lines in SCID mice significantly inhibited tumor growth.
A similar effect was observed in EVs derived from human cord blood Wharton's jelly MSCs (hWJMSC-EVs) [55]. hWJMSC-EVs abolished T24 bladder tumor proliferation via G0/G1 phase arrest in a dose-dependent manner and induced apoptosis in T24 cells in vitro and in vivo. The antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects were mainly mediated by restraining phosphorylation of Akt, upregulation of p-p53, and activation of caspase cascade (caspase-3 cleavage).
Another recent paper described the effect of murine MSC-EVs on the expression of VEGF in mouse breast cancer cell line (4T1). It demonstrated that murine MSCEVs significantly downregulated the expression of VEGF in a dose-dependent manner, causing inhibition of angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, miRNA-16 shuttled by MSC-EVs was partially responsible for the antiangiogenic effect of MSC-EVs [52].
In addition, it was reported that in hematological malignancies normal BMSC-EVs inhibited the growth of multiple myeloma (MM) cells, while MM BMSC-EVs promoted MM tumor growth [50]. Further studyfound that normal and MM BMSC-EVs differed in their protein and miRNA contents, with higher expression of cytokines, oncogenic proteins, and protein kinases in MM BMSC-EVs, but lower level of miRNA-15a. On the basis of this information, MSC-EVs could therefore exert either antiproliferation or proapoptotic effects on tumor cells (Table 4).
5. MSC-EVs Promote the Growth and Metastasis of Tumor Cells
The tumor growth promoting effects of MSC-EVs have also been suggested by various reports. For instance, researchers have found that MSC-EVs could increase tumor growth in BALB/c nu/nu mice xenograft model by enhancing VEGF expression through activation of extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and p38 MAPK pathway [56]. Inhibition of ERK1/2 activation could reverse the increase of VEGF level by MSC-EVs. However, the proproliferative effect on cancer cells was not observed in vitro, and there were no differences in the percentage of cells in the G0/G1, S, and G2/M phases between EV-treated and untreated cells. These findings suggest that MSC-EVs do not directly stimulate proliferation of cancer cells in vitro but instead induce activation of an angiogenesis program that could favor tumor engraftment and growth.
MSC-EVs can also promote the metastasis of the breast cancer cell line MCF7 by activating the Wnt pathway. In a study on MM, researchers found that BMSC-EVs could promote proliferation, survival, and metastasis of myeloma cells. p38, p53, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and Akt pathways in MM cells were influenced by BMSC-EVs [57].
In addition, Du et al. have reported that hWJMSCEVs promoted the growth and migration of human renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cells both in vitro and in vivo. EVs facilitated the progression of cell cycle from G0/G1 to S. The mechanisms underlying this effect were suggested to be transfer of RNA material by EVs to induce hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) expression in RCC and activate Akt and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. Use of c-Met inhibitors can abrogate the activation of AKT and ERK1/2 signaling in 7860 cells [58]. Interestingly, the same group has demonstrated the antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects of hWJMSC-EVs on bladder cancer cells [74].
Taken above findings together, the same EVs can have opposite effects on different tumors (Figure 2). The specific mechanism is not precisely known.
6. MSC-EVs Promote Dormancy of Tumor Cells
Some researchers have found that BMSC-EVs could decrease the proliferation of BM2 cells and reduce the abundance of stem cell-like surface markers. Further studies showed that dormant phenotypes were induced by overexpression of miR23b in BM2 cells which suppressed MARCKS gene [51].
Another study has also indicated that stroma-derived exosomes contributed to breast cancer cells quiescence. The transfer of miRNAs might be involved in the dormancy of BM metastases [59]. Thus, targeting miRNA may be a valid therapeutic tool to reduce breast cancer metastasis.
7. MSC-EVs Promote Drug Resistance of Tumor Cells
It has been reported that BMSC-EVs not only increase MM cells growth but also induce resistance to bortezomib (BTZ), a proteasome inhibitor [57]. BMSC-EVs could inhibit the reduction of Bcl-2 expression caused by BTZ and reduce the cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3, and PARP. Researchers also found BMSC-EVs could decrease the sensitivity of BM2 cells to docetaxel, a common chemotherapy agent [51].
In addition, the EVs derived from rat bone marrow-derived MSCs (rBMSC-EVs) can protect the rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells against the excitotoxicity induced by glutamate. In this study it was also revealed that rBMSCEVs reduced the expression of Bax and Bcl-2. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt pathway could partially abrogate the protective effects [60].
8. Conclusion
MSC-EVs could mimic the effects of mesenchymal stem cells in tumor therapies. Compared with cells, MSC-EVs are much smaller and have a lower possibility of immune rejection and formation of tumor. Therefore, MSC-EVs represent a promising alternative that could overcome the limitations of cell-therapy approaches. Besides being therapeutic agents, MSC-EVs have been advocated as "natural" drug delivery vehicles [76-78]. These lipid vesicles could be engineered to deliver therapeutic agents to target sites. For instance, it has been reported that the EVs secreted by SR4987 cells primed with paclitaxel (SR4987PTX) delivered active drugs and inhibited human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells proliferation in a dose-dependent manner [79]. However, several questions have to be answered before clinical application of MSC-EVs. Firstly, it is very important to carefully evaluate the safety issues. For MSC-EVs have been reported to promote tumor growth, it is necessary to verify what kind of tumors may benefit from the treatment and to which extent MSCEVs contribute to the beneficial effects. Secondly, researchers should thoroughly characterize the content of MSC-EVs and identify what molecules shuttled by MSC-EVs would function. Thirdly, the technologies for the isolation, detection, characterization, and engineering of MSC-EVs need to be standardized for their clinical application. Meanwhile, MSC-EVs dose, optimal timing of MSC-EVs administration, and schedule of administration also need to be developed for effective usage of MSC-EVs.
In conclusion, although MSC-EVs open up a promising opportunity to develop new "biotech drugs" in malignant diseases, further investigation is still required in some areas.
https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2017/1758139
Competing Interests
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Acknowledgments
Our research is supported by grants from National Natural Science Foundation of China (81260231), Major Basic Research Projects of Jiangxi Province (20143ACB20005), Jiangxi Province Major Academic Disciplines and Technical Leaders Training Program (2014BCB22009), Jiangxi Provincial Health and Family Planning Commission Science and Technology Program (20155645), and Graduate Student Innovation Fund of Jiangxi Province (YC2014-B023).
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Xiaoyan Zhang, (1, 2, 3) Huaijun Tu, (4) Yazhi Yang, (1, 3) Lijun Fang, (1, 3) Qiong Wu, (1) and Jian Li (1)
(1) The Key Laboratory of Hematology of Jiangxi Province, The Department of Hematology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 1 Minde Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
(2) Basic Medical School, Nanchang University, 465 Bayi Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
(3) Graduate School of Medicine, Nanchang University, 465 Bayi Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
(4) The Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 1 Minde Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
Correspondence should be addressed to Jian Li; thj127900@163.com
Received 25 October 2016; Accepted 19 February 2017; Published 9 March 2017
Academic Editor: Benedetta Bussolati
Caption: FIGURE 1: Composition of MSC-EVs. MSC-EVs carry a variety of molecules including proteins, mRNAs, miRNAs, and lipids. Transfer of these biological materials into adjacent or distant cells may influence the behavior of the recipient cells.
Caption: FIGURE 2: The different effects of MSC-EVs on the growth, metastasis, and drug response of different tumor cells.
TABLE 1: Protein contents of MSC-EVs.
Source of EVs Protein
Human bone CD13, CD29, CD44, CD73, CD105, CD81, CD63, CD90,
marrow-derived MSCs CD9
Human bone PDGFRB, EGFR, TGFBI, IGF2R
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone CTNNBI, RAC1, RAC2, CHP, PRKCB, PPP2RIA, CAMK2D,
marrow-derived MSCs PRKACA, CAMK2G
Human bone PPP2RIA, MAPK1, USP9X, COL1A2, CD105, ENG FLNA,
marrow-derived MSCs HSPAB, CACNA2D1, CHP, FLNC, PDGFRB, RAP1B,
RRAS2, MAP4K4, EGFR, RRAS, GNG12, RAC1, HSPAIA,
CDC42,
Human bone RAC2, NRAS, MAPK1, CD81, FLNB, HSPB1, PRKCB,
marrow-derived MSCs PRKACA, RAP1A, GNAI2, CAVI, PRDX2, PPP2RIA,
SOD1, ITGA1, LPAR1
Human bone ILK, FABP5, ACSL4
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone ENG, USP9X
marrow-derived MSCs
Human adipose Neprilysin
tissue-derived MSCs
Human bone TIA, TIAR, HuR
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Staul, Stau2
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Ago2
marrow-derived MSCs
Human umbilical Wnt4
cord-derived MSCs
Human umbilical Angiogenin, IL-6, bFGF, UPAR, VEGF, MCP-1, VEGF
cord-derived MSCs R2, IGF-I
Source of EVs Function Reference
Human bone Surface antigen [39-41]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone MSCs self-renewal [39]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone MSCs self-renewal and [39]
marrow-derived MSCs differentiation, Wnt signaling
pathway
Human bone MSCs differentiation, TGF/J [39]
marrow-derived MSCs signaling pathway
Human bone MSCs differentiation, MAPK signaling [39]
marrow-derived MSCs pathway
Human bone MSCs differentiation, PPAR signaling [39]
marrow-derived MSCs pathway
Human bone MSCs differentiation, BMP signaling [39]
marrow-derived MSCs pathway
Human adipose Degrade intracellular and [42]
tissue-derived MSCs extracellular jS-amyloid peptide in
neuroblastoma cell lines
Human bone T cell internal antigen [43]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Involved in the transport and [43]
marrow-derived MSCs stability of mRNA
Human bone Involved in the miRNA transport and [43]
marrow-derived MSCs processing
Human umbilical Enhance the proliferation and [43]
cord-derived MSCs migration
Human umbilical Promote angiogenesis [44, 45]
cord-derived MSCs
TABLE 2: mRNAs expressed in MSC-EVs.
Source of EVs mRNA
Human bone IGF-1R
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone RAX2, OR11H12, OR2M3, DDN, GRIN3A, NIN, BMP15,
marrow-derived MSCs IBSP, MAGED2, EPX, HK3, COL4A2, CEACAM5,
SCNN1G, PKD2L2,
Human bone CLOCK, IRF6, RAX2, TCFP2, BCL6B
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone HMGN4, TOPORS, ESF1, ELP4, POLR2E, HNRPH2
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone SENP2, RBL1, CDC14B, S100A13
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone CEACAM5, CLEC2A, CXCR7
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone ADAM15, FUT3, ADM2, LTA4H, BDH2, RAB5A
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone CRLF1, IL1RN, MT1X
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone DDN, MSN, CTNNA1
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone COL4A2, IBSP
marrow-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose FOXP3, JMJD1C, KDM6B
tissue-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose MDM4, IFT57, PEG3, PDCD4
tissue-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose HGF, HES1, TCF4
tissue-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose ZBTB1, ZNF217, ZNF238, ZNF461, ZNF568,
tissue-derived MSCs ZNF667, ZHX1
Porcine adipose TMF1, BAZ2B, JMJD1C, MYNN, NFKBIZ,
tissue-derived MSCs PEG3, KCNH6, RUNX1T1, SUFU
Source of EVs Function Reference
Human bone Enhance cell proliferation [46]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Involved in cell differentiation [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Involved in transcription [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone DNA/RNA binding [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Cell cycle [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Receptors [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Involved in metabolism [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Immune regulation [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Cytoskeleton [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Extracellular matrix [47]
marrow-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose Encode transcription factors [48]
tissue-derived MSCs involved in chromosome organization
Porcine adipose Encode transcription factors [48]
tissue-derived MSCs involved in apoptosis
Porcine adipose Encode transcription factors [48]
tissue-derived MSCs involved in proangiogenic pathways
Porcine adipose Encode zinc-finger transcription [48]
tissue-derived MSCs factors
Porcine adipose Encode transcription factors [48]
tissue-derived MSCs involved in alternative splicing
TABLE 3: miRNAs expressed in MSC-EVs.
Source of EVs miRNA
Human bone miRNA-199b, miRNA-218, miRNA-148a, miRNA-135b,
marrow-derived MSCs miRNA-221
Rats bone miRNA-133b
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone miRNA-15a
marrow-derived MSCs
Porcine adipose miRNA-148a, miR532-5p, miRNA-378, let-7f
tissue-derived MSCs
Human bone miRNA-21, miRNA-34a
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone miRNA-23b
marrow-derived MSCs
Mouse bone miRNA-16
marrow-derived MSCs
Human miRNA-486-5p, miRNA-10a-5p, let-7a-5p, miRNA-
adipose-derived MSCs 10b-5p, miRNA-191-5p, miRNA-22-3p, miRNA-222-
3p, miRNA-21-5p, let-7f-5p, miRNA-127-3p,
miRNA-143-3p, miRNA-99b-5p, miRNA-100-5p,
miRNA-92a-3p, miRNA-92b-3p, miRNA-146a-5p,
miRNA-26a-5p, miRNA-4485, miRNA-146b-5p, miRNA-
51a-3p
Human bone miRNA-143-3p, miRNA-10b-5p, miRNA-486-5p, let-
marrow-derived MSCs 7a-5p, miRNA-22-3p, miRNA-21-5p, miRNA-222-3p,
miRNA-28-3p, miRNA-191-5p, miRNA-100-5p, miRNA-
99b-5p, miRNA-92a-3p, miRNA-127-3p, let-7f-5p,
miRNA-92b-3p, miRNA-423-5p, let-7i-5p, miRNA-
10a-5p, miRNA-27b-3p, miRNA-125b-5p
Source of EVs Function Reference
Human bone Regulate osteoblast differentiation [49]
marrow-derived MSCs
Rats bone Contribute to neurite outgrowth [38]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human bone Inhibit the growth of multiple [50]
marrow-derived MSCs myeloma cells
Porcine adipose Regulate apoptosis, proteolysis [48]
tissue-derived MSCs angiogenesis, and cellular
transport
Human bone Regulate cell survival and [41]
marrow-derived MSCs proliferation
Human bone Induce dormant phenotypes [51]
marrow-derived MSCs
Mouse bone Target VEGF; suppress angiogenesis [52]
marrow-derived MSCs
Human Promote the migration; involved in [53]
adipose-derived MSCs replicative senescence, immune
modulatory function; regulate cell
cycle progression and
proliferation; modulate
angiogenesis
Human bone Promote the migration; involved in [53]
marrow-derived MSCs ASC replicative senescence, immune
modulatory function; regulate cell
cycle progression and
proliferation; modulate
angiogenesis
TABLE 4: Various effects of MSC-EVs on different types of tumor.
Source of EVs Receptor cells Biological function
Human bone Breast cancer cell Support breast tumor
marrow-derived MSCs line MCF7 growth in vivo
Human bone HepG2 hepatoma, Inhibit in vitro cell
marrow-derived MSCs Kaposi's sarcoma, and growth and survival of
Skov-3 ovarian tumor different tumor cell
cell lines lines
Human umbilical cord Bladder tumor T24 Inhibit T24 cells
Wharton's jelly MSCs cells proliferative
viability and induce
apoptosis in T24 cells
in vitro and in vivo
Mouse bone Mouse breast cancer Suppress angiogenesis
marrow-derived MSCs cell line (4T1) in vitro and in vivo
Human bone Multiple myeloma cells MM BMSC-EVs promote MM
marrow-derived MSCs tumor growth; normal
BMSC-EVs inhibit the
growth of MM cells
Human bone Human colon cancer Promote tumor growth
marrow-derived MSCs cells, human gastric in vivo
carcinoma cells, human
lung fibroblast cell
line
Human bone Murine MM cells, human Induce proliferation,
marrow-derived MSCs, MM cells migration, survival,
murine bone and drug resistance of
marrow-derived MSCs MM cells
Human Wharton's Human renal cancer Promote the growth and
Jelly MSCs cell aggressiveness of
human renal cancer
cell both in vitro and
in vivo
Human bone Human breast cancer Promote breast cancer
marrow-derived MSCs cell line (BM2) cells dormancy, drug
resistance
Human bone Breast cancer cells Contribute to breast
marrow-derived MSCs MDA-MB-231 and T47D cancer cell quiescence
Rat bone Rat pheochromocytoma Protect rat
marrow-derived MSCs PC12 cells pheochromocytoma PC12
cells from glutamate-
induced excitotoxicity
Source of EVs Proposed mechanism Reference
Human bone Transport tumor [41]
marrow-derived MSCs supportive miRNA-21
and 34a
Human bone Inhibit cell cycle [54]
marrow-derived MSCs progression in all
cell lines and induce
apoptosis in HepG2 and
Kaposi's cells and
necrosis in Skov-3
Human umbilical cord Downregulate [55]
Wharton's jelly MSCs phosphorylation of Akt
protein kinase and
upregulate cleaved
caspase-3
Mouse bone The exosome-derived [52]
marrow-derived MSCs miRNA-16 reduce the
expression of VEGF in
4T1 cells
Human bone The tumor suppressor [50]
marrow-derived MSCs miRNA-15a is present
in normal BMSCs, but
absent in MM BMSCs
Human bone Exosomes enhance VEGF [56]
marrow-derived MSCs expression in tumor
cells by activating
ERK1/2 pathway
Human bone Influence the [57]
marrow-derived MSCs, activation of several
murine bone survival relevant
marrow-derived MSCs pathways, including c-
Jun N-terminal kinase,
p38, p53, and Akt
Human Wharton's Induce HGF synthesis [58]
Jelly MSCs via RNA transferred by
EVs activating AKT and
ERK1/2 signaling
Human bone Overexpression of miR- [51]
marrow-derived MSCs 23b in BM2 cells
induces dormant
phenotypes through the
suppression of a
target gene, MARCKS
Human bone Transfer miRNAs from [59]
marrow-derived MSCs bone marrow stroma to
breast cancer cells
Rat bone Upregulate Akt [60]
marrow-derived MSCs phosphorylation and
Bcl-2 expression,
downregulate Bax
expression, and reduce
the cleavage of
caspase-3
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| Author: | Zhang, Xiaoyan; Tu, Huaijun; Yang, Yazhi; Fang, Lijun; Wu, Qiong; Li, Jian |
|---|---|
| Publication: | Stem Cells International |
| Article Type: | Report |
| Date: | Jan 1, 2017 |
| Words: | 6733 |
| Previous Article: | Allogeneic Umbilical Cord-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells as a Potential Source for Cartilage and Bone Regeneration: An In Vitro Study. |
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