Youth recreation leads to adult conservation: outdoor playtime integral during childhood development.

With growing urban populations and decreasing natural resources, it is important to consider how adults will gain the attitudes needed to protect depleting natural outdoor environments for future generations. From 1982-2001, about 34 million acres (an area the size of Illinois) was converted for future development. About 9 million of those acres were developed between 1997-2001 (National Resources Conservation Service, 2003). Furthermore, in conjunction with this development there was a growth in United States population in urban areas from 70 percent in 1960 to a projected 80 percent by 2010 (Godbey, 1997). The result of this development and urbanization is a decreasing biodiversity that has been "sped up several thousand times due to habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation and other human activities" (Godbey, 1997, p. 45). Because of this incidence, it is important to consider a growing body of research that increasingly shows a relationship between outdoor experiences people have in their early lives and what they believe and value about the natural environment in their adult life. The primary method used by researchers in this area was to interview adults about their recollection of early-life outdoor experiences, grouping the results into categories: life experiences (recreational activities with others or alone), place attachment (Stedman, 2002), negative experiences (Sward, 1999), education (Corcoran, 1999), or organizations. These categories help parks and recreation professionals foster values consistent with an environmental ethic.

Learning From the Outdoors

Newhouse notes that, while much of the research performed on outdoor experience has dealt with the impact of specific educational programs, "it seems likely that most environmental attitudes are formed as a result of life experiences rather than any specific program that was designed to change attitudes" (1990, p. 28). In 1997, Bixler indicated that a great deal of these life experiences (recreational activities) are learned during childhood, such as hunting and fishing, and may be the result of family influence or the unsupervised exploration common to children. Teisl and O'Brien suggest that participation in outdoor recreation activities is positively associated with environmental concern and behaviors. These outdoor activities are outdoor experiences that are part of a child's time of exploration, discovery and play, and can occur alone or with friends or family.

Several authors have identified early-life outdoor experience--whether alone or with others--as the most important factor found in their research in developing environmental concern (Bixler, Floyd, and Hammitt, 2002; Corcoran, 1999; Palmer, 1993; Palmer, Suggate, Bajd, & Tsaliki, 1998; Palmer, Suggate, Robottom, & Hart, 1999; Sward, 1999; and Tanner, 1980). Specifically, rating the early-life outdoor experience as the most important factor in influencing their environmental concern and beliefs were 78 percent of Tanner's 1980-study respondents, 88 percent of Sward's 1999-study respondents, and 71 percent of the respondents in Palmer, Suggate, Robottom and Hart's 1999 study. For example, Corcoran examined formative influences in 1999 in the lives of United States environmental educators. Corcoran found that the most important influence was early experiences in the outdoors, and the greatest human influence was the family (mentioned by 70 percent of respondents), followed by the media (62 percent). Finally and more recently in 2002, Bixler, Floyd, and Hammitt looked at the association between childhood play experiences in wild environments and later environmental preferences in the domains of work, leisure and school. They found a positive relationship between having played in natural outdoor environments and more positive perceptions of the natural environment.

As previously mentioned, many of these early-life outdoor experiences were with family. Early-life outdoor experiences with family result in values about the environment that are learned from family members either through examples of pro-environmental behaviors or from explicit teaching (Chawla, 1998). Family influence can include trips into the outdoors, visiting grandparents in the country, farming, hunting and fishing, walks, camping, instruction about the environment and being raised in an environmentally friendly home. In addition, Bixler found in i997 that parents have an impact on their child's influences through the institutions they may be a part of or encourage their children to be a part of. Furthermore, parents' influence begin with their choice of location for the family residence as well as their choice of the family trip.

Power of Association

In addition to time spent alone, with others, or with family, another factor that has been shown to play a role in the formation of environmental concern and belief is "place attachment."

"As individuals develop an emotional connection to their local natural resources, they appear to act responsibly in day-to-day activities as well as at the setting" (Vaske & Kobrin, 2001, p. 21). For example, Henniger asked respondents in 1994 to recollect, draw and discuss their favorite early-life play experience. The respondents were asked to draw the location and objects used in the play experience. In a comparison of the locations, there was a clear preference for describing experiences that took place in the outdoors. The outdoors was described by respondents as stimulating and memorable noting the sights, sounds, smells and tastes of the outdoors. Furthermore, Chawla studied the ecstatic memories of early-life places.

In her 1990 study, Chawla found that "the most common form of memory was simply affection for a place where one had felt comfortable, secure and well loved, where place affiliations and social affiliations happily overlapped" (p. 19). These places were first and foremost outdoors. Even in the urban areas, nature was memorable because it held freedom for discovery, use of all the senses and a sense of belonging.

Association with good outdoor experiences is only one form of influence. Negative outdoor experiences--including witnessing the development (building construction) of a favorite early-life area, destruction of natural areas, decline of a species, or being impacted by growing up in a 'concrete jungle' (Newhouse, 1990; Chawla, 1998)--have shown the importance of an individual's development of environmental concern and beliefs. For example, in the Palmer, Suggate, Bajd and Tsaliki 1998 study, negative experiences were the most common factor in influencing environmental sensitivity in respondents from Greece and were influential for 42 percent of Slovenia respondents. Furthermore, Sward found in 1999 that negative experiences were the second most influential variable with 42 percent of the respondents indicating its impact.

Nothing Beats the Outdoors

A fifth important variable affecting the early-life outdoor experience is environmental education. This affect can be a result of classroom instruction, reading a book, participation in a nature education program, an inspiring teacher, a TV news series, etc. Knowledge in general enables an individual to be better equipped to access information about the natural environment resulting in greater awareness (Wall, 1995). Awareness leads to change in attitudes which in turn leads to further acquiring of knowledge about the environment (Acury, 1990). For example, Ewert and Baker found in 1998 that education has been proven to be the most consistent relationship to level of concern for the environment. Furthermore, Ewert and Baker believed that "much of the research indicates that there is a significant linear relationship between the level of education and expressed environmental attitudes and concerns" (1998, p. 5).

Specifically, research indicates that classrooms that share knowledge of environmental issues; allow for discussions of alternative solutions to environmental problems; develop issue investigation skills; develop problem-solving skills; and allow for discussions on values have been shown to be successful in increasing pro-environmental behavior (Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera, 1987). In addition to these classrooms, television is another venue that is becoming effective in educating youth about the environment. Zimmermann found in 1996 that children watching broadcasts about wildlife had significantly more positive attitudes toward animals then non-viewers.

Besides formal education within the classroom, there are other ways an individual can be taught and influenced about the outdoors. Organizations in which an individual belonged have been integral in developing an individuals environmental sensitivity and knowledge. These include Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, farming organizations, church groups and others that involved the child in outdoor activities. Participation in organizations associated with environmental issues was shown to be a factor in several studies including Palmer's 1993 study. Sward's 1999 study and Klineberg, McKeever and Rothenbach's 1998 study. For example, 47 percent of the respondents in Palmer's study indicated the involvement in early-life organizations such as Brownies, Cubs, and Scouts with 6 percent identifying organizations as the single most important influence.

Research is continuing to examine if and how early-life experiences help shape and mold the attitudes and beliefs adults hold about the environment. Presently, the indication is that early-life play experiences in the outdoors whether done alone or with family contribute to lifelong interests in conservation and environmental movements. Time spent in the outdoors during an individual's early-life, with family, through organizations and education, whether positive or negative help impact adults' views toward the environment. Therefore, until research tells us otherwise we must continue to offer and provide experiences for children to experience the outdoors whether alone, with friends, with family, through organizations, and/or through educational endeavors.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: KEEPING OPPORTUNITIES ALIVE IN THE OUTDOORS

Parks and recreation personnel need to continue to provide opportunities for people of all ages to experience the outdoors.

* Outdoor activities need to be offered on a consistent basis with a variety of experience to continue to provide opportunities to experience leisure in the outdoors. It will be up to the practitioner to explore those activities which are most effective in their communities.

* Parks and recreation personnel along with educators need to continue to educate the public whenever possible on environmental and conservational issues. Educational opportunities continue to be important and should not be discontinued as a result of Low attendance. Rather, the practitioner should continue to find ways to have effective educational programs whether they are interpretation programs, programs for local school children, or availability of books and videos. They can be effective!

* Parks and recreation management and supervisors should continue to educate and encourage staff in their efforts to promote and provide outdoor experiences. Those in leadership need to be sold on the idea of educating and encouraging staff who may endure discouragement as a result of participation levels. Excitement and energy on the part of leadership is contagious and spreads through our staff to the public.

* Park and recreation agencies need to explore the opportunities to partner with organizations that have at least a portion of their mission to teach environmental and/or conservational principles. Organizations are an important avenue in which many adults indicate they learn about environmental issues and therefore should have our support in providing this valuable training and experiences. A partnership could allow for the use of staff and/or facilities which may enhance the ability of various organizations to teach these types of principles.

* Park and recreation personnel need to recognize the importance of place attachment people have with local natural resources and natural wonders. Personnel should take advantage of these areas through programming and events both for the benefits of those already attached and for the youth who may find an attachment and a desire to protect in the future.

* Park and recreation agencies need to support and encourage the establishment and continued safeguarding of open spaces especially in urban areas. While parks in urban areas are not typically examples of pristine outdoor environments they nonetheless provide urban youth with possibly their only connection with the outdoors. Therefore, we need to be active in safeguarding these areas.

* Park and recreation agencies need to support and encourage the reading of data that surfaces dealing with the issues of urbanization and the depletion of natural resources. Included in our newsletter could be a section that passes on to our readers facts and data that arise dealing with issues surrounding the environment. Informed readers will hopefully join in community action and support programs that deal with protecting outdoor areas for future generations to enjoy and experience.

* Park and recreation professionals should support and encourage further research aimed at pinpointing more accurately what it is that causes an individual to develop pro-environmental and pro-conservational attitudes. While this synopsis provides an idea we need to look at differences in the outdoor experiences between an individual who grows up to protect the environment and one that is pro-developmental.

References

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Greg Place, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of recreation at Chicago State University. Dr. Place's teaching interests include leadership, management, administration and community and commercial recreation. Early life outdoor experiences are the focus of his dissertation. Other research interests include environmental education, outdoor recreation in minority cultures and volunteer retention.