Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland: James VI's Demonology and the North Berwick Witches. (Reviews).

Lawrence Normand and Gareth Roberts, eds., Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland, James VI's Demonology and the North Berwick Witches.

Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000. 18 pls. + xiii + 454 pp. $85. ISBN: 0-85989-680-3 (cl), ISBN: 0-85989-388-X (pbk).

Normand and Roberts examine witchcraft and demonology through a fascinating study of the witch trials in Edinburgh in 1590-91. These formed part of a larger outbreak of witchcraft that began in East Lothian in late 1590 and sporadically spread into other areas, ending in 1595-97. Unlike previous scholars, they apply the name, "North Berwick witch hunt," only to the trials of 1590-91. They credit the work of Christina Lamer, without which they maintain their study could not have been written, but also refine some of her points, especially concerning elite and popular cultures. They argue that, far from being separated, these beliefs interacted with and influenced each other to create a fantastic story, in this instance, partly because James VI and his privy councillors became involved in the trials, helping to direct the witches' confessions into accounts of treason. The accused called their meetings conventions echoing the name of a major national structure; they took oaths in pacts reminiscent of noblemen's bands and the reformer's covenants. Satan appeared both as the elite tyrant and as the more inept popular figure who could be criticized.

To introduce the documents which are in readable, modernized form, the editors provide a helpful context. The trials occurred during a period of crises. First came the challenge of Francis Stewart, fifth earl of Bothwell, to James' royal authority, which was made shortly before the king left to rescue his bride, Anne of Denmark, whose fleet was stranded in Norway. Second, religious tensions were exacerbated when the Protestant Bothwell, because he disliked the king's chancellor, aided Catholic lords in protesting the reformed settlement. North Berwick, one of the places where the witches' conventions were held to discuss the production of a wax image of the king, had a long-standing association with monasticism. In response to continuing Catholic and even older tradition, the kirk meanwhile was moving energetically to reform popular culture. Finally, the economy was hit by harvest failures and the plague.

Three types of documents are presented. The first include pre-trial depositions and examinations in which witnesses sometimes encountered the accused. Accompanying the usual maleficium, healing, and divination activities, these documents present information that the accused conjured up the storms to delay Queen Anne and assisted Bothwell in his attempts first to gain the king's favor and then to destroy him. Following them are the trial records, or dittays, for John Fian, whose scriptural references seemed to be influenced by the reformed religion; for Agnes Sampson, whose confessions echoed old religious magical practices and told of striving to delay the queen's homecoming; for Barbara Napier, who was arraigned for consulting with witches and who aided Bothwell against the king; and Euphame MacCalzean, who reportedly made love charms. The editors equated her efforts to induce her husband's love with Bothwell's alleged attempt to win the king's favor with magic. Like the others, Napier was executed, since th e Witchcraft Act of 1563 provided the death penalty for consulting with witches as well as for being one. Finally, Bothwell's dittay of 1593, in which he was acquitted of consulting with witches, was included in this section.

Next come two political publications. News from Scotland seems to have been written while the trials were underway. No author's name appears but James Carmichael, reformed minister of Haddington, may well have assembled the material. A composite text greatly dependent upon the pre-trial examinations, it presents information that does not appear in the records: graphic detail about the torture used to obtain the confessions and, ignoring the men involved, descriptions of the women's sexual relationships with Satan. Aping religious and social customs, the women serve the devil as their superior feudal lord; he becomes a type of reformed minister, directing events in the pulpit. The king emerges here as the lord's anointed in opposition to Saran. Lastly, James VI's Demonology may have been written in 1591. While it relies on many sources, it depends heavily on the trial records. A slender work, it is noteworthy because it is the only tract on demonology written by a Renaissance monarch.

This splendid edition of the documents represents substantial research and will be a welcome addition to the library of all interested in this topic.