Why they fought: Native American involvement in the American Civil War: American Indian involvement in the American Civil War was, on the large scale, rather insignificant.

As the country broke apart into North and South, the secret world of independent nations living within the borders of the United States of America were presented with a choice of whether to fight on the side of the white man, or to avoid the coming war all together. The United States government was initially reluctant to enlist Native American soldiers in their cause against the South. The Confederate States were initially eager to enlist the help of the Native Americans, but backed away from their eager beginnings after the battle of Pea Ridge. Native Americans themselves were split as to who they would support, if at all; and almost always their nations were divided between loyalty to the Union and loyalty to the Confederacy. Native American involvement in the Civil War encompasses more than simply the decision of individual tribes and nations to support either the North or South; rather their involvement includes the decisions made by the governments of the North and South to utilize the Native Americans.

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While motivations for the involvement in the American Civil War differ among the Natives who fought, the motivations of the Five Civilized Tribes, mainly due to the involvement of whole tribes rather than individual members, stand as an important model by which historians can judge the whole. The most prominent of the Five Civilized Tribes who were involved in the Civil War were the Cherokee. Even before the Southern States seceded, the Cherokee Nation was divided over decades of turmoil after certain Cherokee leaders agreed to relocate to the Oklahoma territory.

The Cherokee Nation served as the largest contributor to the Civil War by Native Americans on either side. Leading the charge for the pro-Confederacy element was General Stand Watie, the last Confederate General to surrender in the Civil War. He commanded a company of Cherokee who were at odds with the main leadership of the tribe. Watie and his army had been fighting with elements of the Cherokee who had violently resisted removal to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.

The beginning of the Cherokee Civil War, which would bleed into the American Civil War, began in the early 19th century as the United States and the individual states began to expand. The State of Georgia was no exception, asking the Cherokee Nation to relocate west. By 1817, however, the Cherokee made little effort to relocate. The Lower Cherokees, mostly farmers, ignored the suggestions from Georgia that they move, but the Upper Cherokees, mostly hunters, traded their lands for western hunting grounds. (Cunningham, p.16) It was nearly two decades before the--Cherokee would sell their lands to the state of Georgia and begin their journey west, albeit only after the Federal government of the United States became involved. During the time period in between, the Cherokee formed a government and drew up a Constitution. On December 29, 1835 a group of Cherokees known as the Treaty Party signed the Treaty of New Echota. (1) The Treaty Party was made up of half-blooded Cherokees led by Elias Boudinot, Stand Watie and Major Ridge. Ironically, the half bloods who made up the Treaty Party argued fervently for the Cherokees to capitulate and move their nation west and in 1861 it was the half bloods who chose to defy the United States government in favor of the Confederacy (2). Unlike the full-blood members of their tribe, the half bloods were rich and often lived lives similar to the white man.

The primary leadership of the tribe, headed by Chief John Ross, was furious over the treachery of the Treaty Party. "In June, 1839, at Double Springs, the Ross faction held a secret council, put a commander over each hundred men of their Knights of Death, or secret police, and vowed to wipe out the leaders of the Treaty Party!" (Cunningham, p. 16). The Knights of Death went on to murder John Ridge on the twenty-second of June at his home on Honey Creek. Another band of three braves deceived Elias Boudinot into going with them to secure medicine; they stabbed Boudinot in the back (3). Stand Watie managed to survive the assassination attempt and vowed to take revenge for his brother's death. The origins of the Cherokee involvement in the American Civil War began here nearly twenty-years prior with the struggles between separate factions of the tribe.

By 1860 political events in the United States resulted in the secession of seven Southern States and the formation of the Confederate States of America; the Civil War engulfed the nation. The Native American tribes, in particular the Cherokee, were unable to avoid the conflict between the United States and the Confederacy. Heavy pressure was applied to all the tribes living in the Indian Territory to join either the Confederacy or the Union. By 1861, when the first of the Confederate States had already begun to secede from the United States, the Five Civilized Tribes were caught in the middle. Both sides of the issue swept the whole of the nation including the Oklahoma Territory:

With the frenzied abolitionists whipping up an emotional malice against the Southerners supporting States Rights and refusing to bow before the outcries of fanatics, the boiling political kettle spilled over into far remote Indian Territory, the land of the Five Civilized Nations; the Cherokee, Seminole, Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw. (Cunningham, p. 31)

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The Confederacy had the upper hand in convincing Native Americans living in Oklahoma to fight for their side. The tribes living in Indian Territory (now the state of Oklahoma) were primarily made up of Southern gentlemen who owned slaves. The culture of Indian Territory was far closer in resemblance to the Southern states than the Northern states. However, the more dominating factor was that the Confederacy appointed two well respected men to manage various Indian affairs. Elias Rector was appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs at Fort Smith, Arkansas and Douglas H. Cooper, who was a hard drinking Mississippian and a Franklin Pierce appointee, was the Choctaw and Chickasaw agent. All five Civilized Tribes, including other tribes within Indian Territory, were in contact with southerners who favored secession. On May 25, 1861 the Chickasaw Legislature announced its support of the Confederacy. (Cunningham, p. 34)

When the Confederate States of America formed, the loyalties of agents in Indian Territory provided the new government with an advantage that the United States ultimately lacked. The primary motivation behind Confederate interest in the use of Native Americans was their land. It was felt that in the event of war they could use the Territory as a storehouse for provisions, a highway to and from Texas, and a base for raids into Federal territory including a base for capturing Colorado. (Cunningham, p.31-32) The Native Americans for their part felt a need to make decisions independent of what their white neighbors were doing. "The Chickasaws called for a meeting on January 5, 1861, citing the need to renew harmony and good feeling among the Five Nations." (Confer, p. 43)

The Confederate government wasted no time in authorizing President Jefferson Davis to send a special agent to the Oklahoma Indian Territory (4). President Davis appointed renowned Southerner Albert Pike as the new Confederate agent to the Indian Territory. Pike's appointment to the Indian Territory was a major coup for the Confederate states, as Pike was also well known and liked by the Natives in the Indian Territory. His appointment gave Pike control over southern Kansas and all of Indian Territory. (Cunningham, p. 34)

Also at his disposal were the Five Civilized Tribes, all slave holders who came from below the Mason-Dixon Line. By August of 1861 all had in some way declared themselves allies of the Confederacy, although the Seminoles, Creeks and Cherokees were divided (Lardas, p. 7). Also in Indian Territory were the Wichita, Quapaw, Caddo, Shawnee, and Seneca who were loyal to the federal government (5). Numerous times in the spring of 1861, Chief John Ross of the --Cherokee made proclamations of neutrality much to the dismay of men like Stand Watie.

By May of 1861 the Confederate government appointed Brigadier General Benjamin McCulloch the command of the Indian Territory (6). As 1861 came to an end the Confederate States of America had gained the alliance of the tribes within the borders of the Indian Territory and created a Bureau of Indian Affairs, headed by David Hubbard, and it was attached to the War Department. (Cunningham, p. 38).

However, 1862 saw the beginning of strains within the relationship as the alliance became unstable. (Abel, p. 13)As the Civil War began in earnest, the Confederacy was left with the problem of whether or not to involve the Native Americans in the war itself. From Albert Pike's perspective, "He never at any time or under any circumstances advocated their use generally as soldiers outside of Indian Territory in regular campaign work and offensively." (Abel, p. 23) Other Confederate commanders had different opinions than Pike's and ultimately called upon their Indian allies for support in the first major battle in the Western Theater of the war, Pea Ridge. During the battle, Confederate General Pike gave his permission for the First Cherokee Mounted Rifles, who were, for the most part, full-bloods, to fight "in their own fashion". Both Generals McCulloch and Mcintosh, the two ranking officers in the Indian Territory, died during the Battle of Pea Ridge giving General Pike the command. Pike's orders to allow the Native Americans to fight in accordance with their own methods led to what were seen as atrocities. The conduct of full-blooded Indians in the Battle of Pea Ridge led to a decision made by the Confederate government not to use Indians on a major scale ever again. (Abel, pp. 18-21) The conduct of the Indian forces were not attributed to the half-bloods who served namely under Stand Watie. Nonetheless, the Confederacy's trust had been broken and the Indians never again served in a significant way in a major battle on behalf of the Confederate States of America.

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Meanwhile, the Union was slow to act with regards to Native Americans in the west. The Union had only begun to take interest in the Native Americans after the First Battle of Bull Run was won by the Confederacy. The Union realized the war was not going to last a few months. It became important to find troops to fight the war. While not classified as citizens, many Native Americans joined the Union Army in an attempt to save their lands in the North. (Madeja, 2006)

The Bureau of Indian Affairs did send agents to Kansas and those agents reported back to Washington the nature of relations with the Native American tribes. Kansas and Missouri were key battle grounds for the armies in the early stages of the Civil War. "Each state gave in its adherence to the Confederacy separately, and, therefore, every single state in the slavery belt had a problem to solve. The fight for Missouri was fought on the border and nowhere else." (Abel, p. 44) James Lane was elected as a Senator for the special session in July of 1861. As the war began in earnest, and it became apparent it would not be a short war, Lane received a commission in Indiana and eventually found himself back in Kansas per the request of General Fremont. Lane chose Fort Scott as his base of operations.(Abel, p. 45)

Indian affairs in the region were initially optimistic. Agent Augustus Wattles stated in a letter dated May 20, 1861 that the Natives were loyal to the U.S. Government and must be protected (7). On August 10, 1861 the Battle of Wilson's Creek was fought (Lardas, p. 7) and was a loss for the United States. In addition, the battle also meant a loss of Native American support, namely the Cherokee. "(Wilson's Creek) rallied the wavering Cherokees for the Confederacy and their defection was something that could not be easily counterbalanced...." (Abel, p. 49) Yet, the loss of the battle also spurred other tribes to General Lane's efforts. Ultimately, 1861 was a horrible disaster for the Union on many levels including attempts to secure Native American supporters. Fort Scott became the headquarters for the Neosho agency due to instability at Crawford's Seminary. Nonetheless, agents were called upon to make preparations for Indian enlistment. Confederate General Pike "conceived it eminently fitting and practicable that the same Union element should have its loyalty put to good uses and be itself induced to take up arms on behalf of the cause it affected so ardently to endorse." (Abel, p. 50) Pike's efforts to utilize the loyal Native Americans in his brigade were finally seen and recognized by the whole of the Indian agency in Washington. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Dole was told in a letter from Agent Cuther dated September 25, 1861:

The loyal Indians say, they wish 'to stand by their Old Treaties.' And they are as persistent in their adherence to these Treaties, as we are, to our Constitution. And I have no doubt that, as soon as the Government can afford them protection, they will be ready, at the first call, to manifest, by overt action, the loyalty to which they are pledged. (Abel, p.62)

The efforts by Indian agents to involve Native forces were largely overlooked despite a desire by many tribes to take part in demonstrating their loyalty to the treaties they had signed with the Union.

The start 1862 saw a slight turnaround for the enlistment of Native Americans. On April 4, less than a month after the Battle of Pea Ridge, the "1st and 2n Indian Home Guard Regiments were authorized, although Secretary of War Stanton was not a supporter of enlisting Native American forces. The spark that caused the Union to pay attention to the loyal Indians was the flood of refugees from the Indian Territory into Kansas (8). Many of the Indians that flooded into Kansas were of fighting age who wanted to return to their homeland and only needed weapons. However, due to ongoing engagements in Kansas and Nebraska with Plains powerhouses such as the Sioux and Blackfoot, the Union was unwilling to arm any loyal Indians; yet by 1862, the Federal Government decided that arming loyal tribes, and allowing them to return to Indian Territory was cheaper than feeding them (9).

The Battle of Pea Ridge had demonstrated that Native American forces could be used in the war with some success. As a result, in May of 1862, the state of Kansas was authorized to raise five Home Guard regiments from pro-Union Indians. This success, for Native American warriors wanting to regain their home from rebel tribes, was the bright spot in Kansas. The Home Guard regiments were mixed among the varying Indian tribes; Creeks, Seminoles, and other Plains tribes tended to enlist in the 1st Home Guard Regiment, while the Cherokee and Osage predominated in the 2nd Home Guard. Enlistment by Native Americans in 1862 was primarily made up of refugees from Indian Territory, although the Delaware also enlisted after serving as scouts for the Union prior to the creation of the Home Guard Regiments. (Abel, p. 11)

The Union conducted a handful of expeditions into Indian Territory after realizing the importance of the land in attempts to protect the Western Theater of operations. In June of 1862 the First Indian Expedition began from Fort Scott. A month later the Cherokee Nation officially declared their loyalty to the Union and the tribe split into two opposing factions. On July 18th the Union captured Fort Gibson in the Indian Territory. The first Indian expedition ended on July 28th with the withdrawal of Union troops. The Indian Home Guard regiments were forced to retreat back to Kansas. The second expedition got underway in October of 1862 which ultimately resulted in the reoccupation of Fort Gibson in May of 1863. While the Union was still harassed by General Stand Watie's men through the end of the war, in July of 1863 the Battle of Cabin Creek secured the supply lines for Fort Gibson. (Lardas, pp.7-11)

Despite the creation of the Indian regiments, the plight of the loyal tribes continued through the winter of 1862. Loyal Native Americans were forced to leave their brethren and take refuge in Kansas. For the most part, the Union continued to handle matters with loyal Indians as they had prior to the war. Even as war broke out and refugees flooded into Kansas, politicians still sought to take possession of Indian lands in Southern Kansas held by the Osage (10). The defection of some tribes in Kansas allowed for politicians to take the land that they had sought since before the beginning of the war. The United States authorized Indian agents to make treaties with the various tribes for the remainder of the war. Treaties were written to help relocate tribes into the existing Indian Territories where the Five Civilized Tribes had been settled. Agent Dole had dealt with the Creeks, Sac and Fox, Osages, and Shawnees. The loyal Cherokees, led by Chief John Ross, protested the Union attempts to place the Delaware on Cherokee land. Union treaties were continually amended and revised throughout 1862 and 1863.

The treaty making process during the war, served to complicate an already serious situation; "the government would be found wanting, lacking in magnanimity, lacking injustice, and all too willing to sacrifice its honor for big interests and transient causes." (Abel, p. 241) Union handling of Native Americans throughout the Civil War was characterized by disinterest and lack of motivation to do anything to help the loyal Native American tribes while at the same time maintaining a troublesome Indian policy.

Ultimately, an estimated 30,000 Native Americans served in the Civil War whether with their tribe in specially formed units, in colored units, or in units with whites. Union and Confederate armies utilized Native Americans throughout the war. Native American involvement in the war is difficult to pinpoint specifically through survivor rosters as many Native Americans had assimilated into white society. (Madeja, 2006) The Indian Territory was highly contested and viewed as important for both governments in their war efforts. Ninety battles were fought in the Indian Territory as both sides attempted to gain the upper hand.

In the Eastern Theater, Native Americans from the Lumbee tribe assisted General Sherman by escorting him through the North Carolina swamps on his march north to Virginia. At Appomattox in April of 1865 was General U.S. Grant's military secretary Captain Ely Parker, a Seneca Indian. It was Parker who drafted the terms of surrender that were signed by General Robert E. Lee. On June 23, 1865 Stand Watie surrendered ending the Civil War in the Indian Territory and marking him as the last Confederate General to surrender. Both Parker and Watie hold the distinct honor of being the only Natives named Brigadier General.

Motivations for Native American involvement in the American Civil War varied from each tribe. For most of the tribes in Indian Territory their motivations were driven by decades old feuds over their removal from the East. Many also chose to remain loyal to their treaties with the United States government, something the latter would fail to do. Both the United States and Confederate States governments saw an advantage to using Native American forces during the Civil War, although the Confederacy made far more use of the Native Americans than did the Union. For most Native Americans, such as Ely Parker, participation in the war was about fighting for their country and proving that while they were not white, Native Americans were just as patriotic and loyal about their nation as their white counter parts. Union politicians sought to capitalize on Native American involvement in the Civil War by taking lands that belonged to the various tribes and giving it over to whites. Reasons behind the Native American involvement in the Civil War are not just the reasons used by the tribes, but include the motivations for Native American involvement by the respective governments.

Hostilities begun during the Civil War between the United States and the various Native American tribes would not end at the surrender of Stand Watie in the Indian Territory. Native American involvement in the Civil War started a war with the United States government that would last for over two decades after the last shots were fired in the Civil War. But for a few brief years in the 1860's, when two factions of white men, who claimed to be country men, could not agree to get along, they found themselves allying themselves with Native Americans.

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Bibliography

Cunningham, Frank. (1998). General Stand Watie's Confederate Indians. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Confer, Clarissa W. (2007). The Cherokee Nation in the Civil War. Norman: University Press of Oklahoma.

Lardas, Mark. (2006). Native American Mounted Rifleman 1861-65. New York: Osprey Publishing.

Abel, Annie Heloise. (1992). The American Indian in the Civil War, 1862-1865. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Madeja, Geoffrey (Director). (2006) Indian Warriors: The Untold Story of the Civil War. (DVD) The History Channel.

Notes

(1.) "On December 29, 1835, without the consent of Chief John Ross, the Treaty of New Echota was signed..." (Cunningham, p.14).

(2.) "The Treaty Party men were the mixed-breeds, often actually more Southern than Indian..." (Cunningham, p.13).

(3.) "On the morning of June 22 a company of riders...", "Elias Boudinot and Reverend S.A. Worchester, with whom he had translated a number of gospel had been working on a translation of St. John at the minister's house at Park Hill. Three men rode up asked Boudinot..." (Cunningham, p.17).

(4.) "In less than a month the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States had authorized President Davis to send a special agent.." (Cunningham, p.33).

(5.) "Also in the Indian territory were a few New York Indian families as well as some groups of Wichitas, Quapaws, Caddoes, Shawnees, and Senecas." (Cunningham, p.34).

(6.) "The Confederate Government at Montgomery did not place all the matters of Indian affairs...." (Cunningham, p.37).

(7.) "They represent that they are loyal to the U.S. government and will fight for their Great Father, at Washington, but must be protected from bad white men at home." (Abel, p.44)

(8.) "While the Confederacy actively recruited the Civilized Nations, the Union began the war by pulling its garrisons out of the Indian Territory, and began preparing to send Kansas troops into Missouri and Arkansas to hold those states for the Union." (Lardas, p.11).

(9.) "The United States Army was fighting the Sioux and Blackfoot in Kansas and Nebraska and opposed arming Indians." (Lardas, p.11).

(10.) "As though the Indians had not afflictions enough to endure merely because of their proximity to the contending whites, life was made miserable for them, during the period of the Civil War, as much as before and after, by the insatiable land-hunger of politicians, speculators, and would-be captains of industry..." (Abel, p.221).