When it's humid, dark and sticky: less discussed.

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Less discussed than the conflicts in the arid terrain of Iraq and Afghanistan are the long-running conflicts in Colombia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka--being fought entirely or partially in jungle. Colombia's armed forces lose one soldier per day in fighting against the Farc (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Ejercito del Pueblo/Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia-People's Army) and more than 750 are wounded each year according to Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen.

The unique challenges of jungle warfare are summarised in The Oxford Companion to American Military History: <<War in the jungle is the province of the infantry. In a tropical or semitropical environment of triple canopy forests, swamps, marshes, or densely forested mountains, tanks, aircraft, and even artillery are of little use [...] further, the environment of extreme heat, virulent diseases, and frequently dangerous flora and fauna requires that units are carefully trained, equipped, and acclimated before deployment.>>

The term jungle includes densely forested areas, grasslands, cultivated areas and swamps. Heat, thick and inhospitable vegetation (e.g. Astrocaryum confertum) and rugged terrain that will rapidly tire troops, especially those carrying heavy weapons, radios and other equipment. Moreover, the wearing of helmets and body armour precipitates exhaustion.

The United States, and to a lesser extent other Western forces, relies on superior technology to defeat its opponents. More than any other theatre the jungle erodes that superiority. Thick jungle can preclude the use of vehicles and helicopters, and reduce movement on foot to only a few kilometres per day. The short range at which most combat takes place in the jungle precludes the use of many support weapons and precision-guided munitions. Limited observation complicates the use of indirect fire weapons and close air support. Greater reliance is being placed upon personal role radios for the command and control of small units in other theatres of operations but wearing a headset or earpiece degrades hearing, which is considered essential in the jungle. In some tactical jungle situations the use of night vision equipment does offer the advantages it does in other environments.

In spite of the difficulties of military operations in the jungle Western forces cannot afford to ignore this environment as the very inaccessibility of these regions makes them havens for terrorists, insurgents and narcotics traffickers. External forces can be deployed to provide training assistance or act as peacekeepers. In those countries with extensive jungle regions, such as Brazil, the armed forces are often deployed to monitor environmental threats such as illegal logging and mining, pollution, fires and to assist in disaster relief.

Jungle Training

The United States, France and Britain maintain out-of-country jungle warfare schools. Established in 1958, the US Marine Corps Jungle Warfare Training Center located on the northern end of the island of Okinawa, Japan has been the only such facility owned by the US Department of Defense since the American military closed Fort Sherman, Panama in 1999. The centre is located in 17,230 acres of single and double-canopy jungle and includes various obstacle courses, a multi-level tunnel complex and a 'third world village'. It provides annual training for up to 10,000 personnel including six infantry battalions.

The British and French armies are the only European forces that maintain permanent jungle training centres. The British Army Training Support Unit Belize (Batsub) was formally established on 1 October 1994. Consisting of about 90 military personnel and 145 locally engaged civilians, it organises a range of training activities across the more than 1000 square miles of training area.

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The French Army operates a Jungle Warfare Training Centre in French Guyana--Centre d'entrainement en foret equatoriale situe en Guyane (Cefe)--which each year conducts about 85 courses primarily for the army. The French overseas department dependency is home to a tri-service garrison of about 1500 personnel, which has among its responsibilities the security of the Guyana Space Centre.

The Australian Army established a jungle warfare centre at Canungra in southern Queensland in 1943 to train soldiers for operations in the jungles of New Guinea during the Second World War. The centre was subsequently used to train Australian troops prior to deployment during the Malayan Emergency, the Borneo Confrontation and the Vietnam War. The Land Warfare Centre, as it is now known, is the home for a variety of rank and trade courses but is also used to train troops prior to deployment in jungle terrain or tropical climates.

All-terrain Vehicles

Infantry and special forces play a decisive role in jungle operations, therefore enhancing their mobility is often a critical factor to success. Jungles that are inhabited or exploited for natural resources will have a road network, however crude, thus allowing the use of wheeled and tracked vehicles. However, vehicles travelling on these roads are vulnerable to mines, improvised explosive devices and ambushes. Wherever possible during the Vietnam War the United States and its allies employed armoured vehicles.

For jungle off-road and swampy terrain operations all-terrain vehicles with wide-band tracks provide a better option than wheeled and tracked armoured vehicles. This sector is dominated by two competing designs that combine mobility with armour protection. BAE Systems Hagglunds produces the armoured Bv 206S based on its successful soft-skin Bv 206 ATV that has been sold to some 40 customers. When configured as a personnel carrier the 7000-kg Bv 206S can carry four in the front unit and eight in the rear unit protected against 7.62 mm ball ammunition and shell splinters by all-welded steel armour.

BAE Systems Hagglunds' larger BvS 10 Viking (combat weight up to 11,500 kg) was developed to meet the British Royal Marines requirement for an amphibious All-Terrain Vehicle (Protected) that could be used across the spectrum of climatic and terrain conditions, including jungle, in which the marines are trained to operate. The Viking is at home in temperatures from -46[degrees] C to +49[degrees] C, can ford water up to a depth of 1.5 metres and is fully amphibious after only two minutes of preparation by the crew. The BvS 10 is similar in layout to the Bv 206S with two articulated units but offers much improved load capacity On roads it can achieve a maximum speed of 80 kph with a 300-km range while in the water is has a top speed of five km/h. Various weapons can be pintle-mounted on the hatches of front and rear units of both the Bv 206S and the BvS 10 and specialist variants are offered to carry support weapons such as mortars and anti-tank missiles.

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The Royal Marines received 108 Vikings between 2004 and 2006 in three variants; the basic troop carrying vehicle, a command vehicle and a repair and recovery vehicle. In 2007 the Royal Netherlands Marines received the last of 74 vehicles; 46 personnel carriers, 20 command vehicles, four recovery vehicles and four ambulances. Following the successful deployment of 33 Royal Marine Vikings to Afghanistan in mid-2006, it was discovered that the Viking provided better mobility in difficult conditions than other wheeled or tracked vehicles used by coalition forces. It was then decided to leave the vehicles in theatre for subsequent army troop rotations. To provide additional protection against rocket-propelled grenades the Vikings in Afghanistan are fitted with slat, or bar, armour. If Vikings were to be deployed in jungle terrain during a conflict bar armour would no doubt have to be fitted to reduce the vehicle's vulnerability to short-range RPG attack during an ambush. In May 2007 the Ministry of Defence ordered a further 21 Vikings for specialist roles.

The French Army is considering the results of a competitive evaluation of the BvS 10 and the Singapore Technologies Kinetics Bronco All-Terrain Tracked Carrier (ATTC) for a requirement of 191 vehicles, plus options. The decision was overdue as this issue of Armada was written. The Singapore Armed Forces has fielded an unspecified number of Broncos and these were used effectively during relief operations after the devastating asian tsunami of December 2004. The Bronco has a conventional layout of two tracked units--the front carries six personnel and the rear unit ten--coupled by an articulated hydraulic joint. The Bronco's all-welded steel hull protects against 7.62 mm ball ammunition and shell splinters, and Germany's IBD has developed an additional modular protection package. With a combat weight of 16,000 kg the vehicle can achieve a maximum road speed of 60 km/h and five km/h in water. STK has demonstrated ambulance, engineer and resupply variants and is proposing further models for such roles as command and control. It has also developed the unique Active Articulation Vehicle demonstrator, which enables the two units to be decoupled for independent operation with the rear unit powered by a hybrid engine/battery.

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One of the most suitable vehicles for jungle operations has been Mercedes Benz's remarkable Unimog truck. Although its design dates back almost sixty years, it has proved popular with armies that routinely operate in jungle environments. The vehicle's characteristics, which include a high ride height, large wheels and long suspension stroke, plus a powerful engine and transmission system, make it ideally suited to driving through jungle areas.

At the other end of the spectrum, the six-wheel drive Supacat boasts particular suitability for jungle operations. The design is amphibious and uses skid steering allowing it to turn on its axis. The six-by-six wheel arrangement distributes the vehicles' weight across all of its tires, giving it relatively low ground pressure, and the vehicle enjoys a high power-to-weight ratio, like the Unimog, which is very useful when driving through jungle undergrowth. In this role, the vehicle can be used for pathfinding, i.e. forcing a way through the vegetation to allow soldiers to follow on foot.

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Finally, the Mowag Duro is available in both 4 x 4 and 6 x 6 configuration. Despite the vehicle hailing from the Alpine peaks of Switzerland the vehicle has proved popular with operators who have significant areas of jungle under their jurisdiction. To this end, both Malaysia and Venezuela have purchased Duros.

The Air Dimension

It often said that the military helicopter came of age during the Vietnam War when the Bell Helicopter UH-1 Iroquois utility helicopter and the Boeing CH-47 Chinook medium support helicopter were used to move troops above the jungle, conduct resupply missions and extract casualties. Jungle operation training requires tuition in identifying suitable clearings for landing zones (LZ) and deciding whether it is practical to clear a zone when none can be found. In such situations the size of helicopter is an important consideration. As the Americans discovered in Vietnam, helicopters are particularly vulnerable to small arms fire from unseen enemies when entering and leaving jungle landing zones.

At the 2007 Paris Air Show Sikorsky Aircraft announced that the government of Colombia had signed a Letter of Offer and Acceptance to acquire 15 Sikorsky UH-60L Black Hawks from the US Army through a $ 225 million Foreign Military Sale contract that includes spares, support and training. Colombia is one of the 26 governments around the world that employs the Black Hawk in a diverse range of missions, from combat assault and peacekeeping to disaster relief and medical evacuation. With more than 70 Black Hawks in service with Colombia's army, air force and national police the helicopter is an important weapon in Colombia's overlapping battle against with narcotics traffickers and Farc rebels.

The AH-60L Arpia III developed for the Fuerza Aerea Colombiana (Colombian Air Force) by Sikorsky and Elbit for use as a counter-insurgency attack helicopter features improved electronics, flir, radar and can be armed with two 19-round 70 mm rocket launchers and 4 GAU-19.50 calibre Gatling guns.

The Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft, although it requires a much larger LZ than the Black Hawk or other helicopters of its class, will no doubt see operational service in the jungle with its three parent organisations. The US Marine Corps plans to acquire 360 MV-22 combat assault and assault support variants, the US Air Force Special Operations Command is seeking 48 long-range CV-22 special operations variants and the US Navy plans to field 50 HV-22, for combat search and rescue, special warfare and fleet logistic support. The 21.5-tonne MV-22 can transport 24 troops or 2700 kg of cargo, to 430 nm combat range. The US Marine Corps' VMM-263 squadron, equipped with ten MV-22s, began the first operational deployment of the Osprey when it deployed to Iraq in October 2007. The Osprey completed 2000 flight hours over three months, achieving a mission-capable availability rate of 68.1% by end of January 2008.

The Allies pioneered the use of airdrops to deliver supplies to forces operating in the Burmese jungles in the Second World War and the procedure remains just as important today for delivering supplies to remote regions both for warfighting and operations other than war. On 31 August 2006 a US Air Force C-130 made the first operational delivery of supplies using the new Joint Precision Airdrop System (J-pads) to troops in Afghanistan. The J-pads combines an Airborne Systems Firefly parafoil, an airborne guidance unit attached to the load and the Precision Airdrop System Mission Planner developed by Planning Systems, a subsidiary of Qinetiq. Ultimately the Department of Defense is seeking to field four sizes of J-pads to enable loads of up to 12,245 kg to be dropped from altitudes as high as 25,000 ft, thus avoiding hostile ground fire. Loads of about five tonnes have successfully been dropped in trials with an accuracy measured in tens of metres. <<The ability to accurately airdrop supplies to remote areas, while keeping our aircraft out of the enemy threat, is a significant increase in the capability that we currently have in theatre and our ability to support the warfighter,>> said Lieutenant Colonel Charles Ciuzo, then Chief of the Air Mobility Division at the Combined Air Operations Center.

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Riverine Operations

An effecive means of penetrating jungle is by river, as was demonstrated during the Malayan Emergency, the Vietnam War and the ongoing conflict in Colombia.

The US Navy formally activated the Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC) on 13 January 2006 in a ceremony conducted at its headquarters at Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek, Virginia. Expected to number up to 50,000 sailors by the end of 2008, the command will include units ranging from explosive ordnance disposal teams, expeditionary logistics specialists and naval coastal warfare groups. NECC is also forming a new riverine combat force similar to the inshore riverine craft and coastal gunboats of the 'brown water navy', which operated in the rivers of the Mekong Delta during the Vietnam War. The first of three squadrons, Riverine Squadron 1 (Rivron 1), deployed to Iraq in March 2007 shortly after becoming operational and was replaced by Rivron 2 in October. <<The riverine crew's mission includes stemming the flow of illegal drugs, cutting lines of communication for terrorists, stopping pirates and basically making the ports more secure and safe,>> said Rear Admiral Donald Bullard, NECC's first commander. Each squadron is expected to comprise twelve boats and about 200 personnel. Rivron 1 is equipped with a mixture of Riverine Assault Craft built for the US Marine Corps in the 1980s and new Small Unit Riverine Craft (Surc).

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In mid-2007 Safe Boats received a $ 2.89 million contract from the US Navy to build a Riverine Command Boat. This is a modified version of the Swedish Navy's successful CB90 design built under license from Dockstavarvet that is fitted with a 'foam collar'. The boat will have a full C4ISR suite including a Seaflir III IR system and Furono Navigation package. The prototype to be completed by June 2008. The fiscal year 2008 (FY08) defence budget includes $ five million in funding for an additional two RCBs.

Since serial production began in 1990 Dockstavarvet has built more than 225 CB90s for Sweden, Norway, Greece, Mexico and Malaysia. Following an invitation from the Brazilian Army Dockstavarvet shipped a CB90 to Brazil in spring 2004 for trials on the Amazon with the 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion. With a length of 15.9 metres, the CB90 is able to carry up to 21 troops and a crew of three. Loading and offloading is quickly achieved via a drop bow system. The twin Scania DI16 850-hp diesel engines coupled to Rolls Royce FF410 waterjets enable the CB90 to achieve speeds in excess of 40 knots. The CB90 design has provision for four individual .50 calibre mounts and a centrally mounted remotely operated weapon station. Other weapons certified for installation on the CB90 include Hellfire missiles and the Amos 120 mm twin-barrel mortar.

The US Marine Corps has been the lead service within the Department of Defense in maintaining a riverine capability. The US Marine Corps Systems Command awarded an industry team led by Raytheon's Naval & Maritime Integrated Systems business unit a contract on 24 July 2002 to produce up to 100 Surcs. The complete system consists of the combat craft, carrying trailer, associated outfit and government furnished equipment such as a Global Positioning System and a combat net radio. Designed as a replacement for the Rigid Raiding Craft, the Surc is able to carry a 13-man infantry squad (up to 18 is possible) and two crewmembers on inland waterways as well as in a variety of conditions on the open sea. The boat is built by Safe Boats International of Port Orchard, Washington. Powered by twin 440-hp six-cylinder diesel engines it can go from zero to 25 kts in 15 seconds, achieve a maximum speed of 40 kts and operate for more than 250 nm without refuelling. It is capable of beaching bow-first on unobstructed shorelines with mud, sand, silt and gravel surfaces. The Surc has a draft of less than 61 cm when operationally loaded, enabling it to operate in shallow water, and Safe Boats' patented foam collar attached to the aluminium hull enables the craft to remain afloat as a survival platform when filled with water. For deployment and recovery the boat can be carried externally by a CH-53D helicopter or MV-22 Osprey and the collars can be removed to enable it to be carried inside a C-130 Hercules tactical transport aircraft. The Surc can be armed with three machine guns or 40 mm automatic grenade launchers. Acceptance trials began in April 2004 and six craft were deployed to Iraq in September 2004 and subsequently saw action in the battle of Fallujah. The marines routinely use the Surc to patrol the Euphrates River, manmade Lake Qadisiyah and other waterways in Iraq in search of insurgents.

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The US Naval Special Warfare Command is equipped with the Special Operations Craft (Riverine) (Socr) for use on inland waterways. In May 2001 the company United States Marine was selected to provide the Socr, which programme documents describe as, <<a small, fast, armed and armored combatant craft system (craft, trailer, detachment deployment package and logistics support)>> able <<to perform short range insertion (SRI) of special operation forces in a riverine environment>>. The new craft measures ten metres in length, with a 2.7-metre beam and a draft of less than 20 cm at speed, which enables it to operate in very shallow water. Twin 440-hp diesel engines provide a top speed of 42 kts. The Socr is fitted with some <<armor to protect the propulsion system, helmsman/gunners from AK-47 ball rounds>>, and has mounts for five weapons such as the M2.50 calibre heavy machine gun, Mk 19 automatic grenade launcher and 7.62 mm mini guns. The Surc can be carried by a C-130 and slung beneath medium-lift helicopters such as the H-47 Chinook and H-53 Stallion/Pave Low families. Special boat teams typically operate 18 Socrs for the insertion of Seal team commandos.

A staple river craft of the British Royal Marines is the Klepper Kayak canoe. The Klepper Kayak is a foldable canoe system which can be made water-ready in around 20 minutes. The Kayak has the major asset of being man-portable, and despite the design being over eighty years' old--the Klepper Kayak itself is based on an age-old Eskimo design--the simple wood frame and pliable skin construction provide an ideal craft for covert river operations. As the kayak is powered entirely by its occupant, it offers significant stealth and noise reduction compared to its outboard-motor powered counterparts. For many years, Klepper supplied its Mk 13 system as the Nato standard covert operation kayak. However, this has since been replaced by the modernised Commando variant.

Colombia, meanwhile, uses a number of different boat designs to patrol inland waterways and to assist in anti-narcotics and anti-guerrilla operations. The most ubiquitous boat design used is the country's 'Eduardono' class of riverine patrol boat. About 50 of these are used by the Army and are powered by a pair of Yamaha outboard motors, developing 400 hp. The craft are around ten metres in length. Echoing back to the days of the Vietnam War, the country also has a number of 'Swiftships' for riverine patrol. These vessels can carry up to eight troops.

However, they are principally used as command vessels to control other craft during riverine operations. These other craft can include 'Tenerife' class boats, which are air-portable when slung below a helicopter and are built around an aluminium hull. Unlike the other vessels, the Tenerife boats are used by the Colombian Marine Corps. To Colombia's northeast, Venezuela has purchased a number of Boston Whaler Guardian class boats for waterborne operations. These vessels can be equipped with a pair of 12.7 mm and 6.72 mm machine guns and can reach speeds of up to 25 kts. Designs such as the Boston Whaler Guardian offer a relatively cheap, but fast, means of operating on inland waterways and moving squads of troops rapidly to trouble spots.

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Jungle Combat

The short-range nature of jungle combat can often preclude the use of indirect fire weapons and air support if friendly troops are actually in combat with the enemy. Because of the short ranges at which most small arms combat takes place in the jungle, it is the practise of most armies to often rely on the weapon's iron sights.

The fielding of the Colt 5.56 mm M16 assault rifle paralleled America's growing involvement in the Vietnam War in the mid-1960s. While troops appreciated the light weight of the M16 in comparison with the 7.62 mm M14 which it replaced, complaints about the inadequate penetration and stopping power of the 5.56-mm cartridge persisted throughout the war. Trees and vegetation deflected bullets, thus requiring higher volumes of fire. Although the 7.62 mm M60 machine gun employed at squad level was criticised for many reasons including its weight, 10.5 kg unloaded, troops appreciated the ability of the more powerful round to penetrate vegetation, termite mounds and bunkers made of logs. The trade-off between weight, rate-of-fire, range and terminal effects remains the focus of discussion in whichever theatre of operations small arms are used.

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The introduction of the FN Herstal 5.56 mm/7.62 mm Special Operations Forces Combat Assault Rifle (Scar) into service this year with the US Special Operations Command (Socom) will balance the conflicting demands made upon small arms by the special forces. The command completed the Initial Operational Test & Evaluation of the Scar and its associated 40-mm Enhanced Grenade Launcher Module (EGLM) in December 2007.

Socom released a request for proposals in January 2004 for a weapon to replace its 5.56-mm M4 carbines. The Scar requirement was influenced by a number of factors including dissatisfaction with the performance of the M4 carbine in the war on terror and the need for a weapon that fires a more powerful cartridge than the Natostandard 5.56 x 45 mm SS109 (US M855) round. In November 2004 FN Herstal's candidate was selected from numerous worldwide competitors. The design enables the user to select the appropriate calibre and barrel length for the theatre of operations and mission. The Scars' modular design provides 90% 'ergonomic compatibility' and 60% parts commonality between the 5.56-mm Mk 16 Mod 0 ScarLight and the 7.62-mm Mk 17 Mod 0 ScarHeavy. The Mk 16 can be fitted with a 254-mm close quarter combat (CQC) barrel, a 355.6-mm standard barrel and a 457.2-mm sniper variant (SV) barrel while the Mk 17 has 330.2, 406.4 and 508-mm barrels. The CQC barrel is intended for use at combat ranges up to 200 metres, while the standard barrel is designed for combat at 300 to 500 metres and the SV barrel is optimised to engage targets between 500 and 800 metres. The user is able to change barrels in less than five minutes with the aid of a special wrench. Both weapons are fitted with MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rails at the 12, 3, 6 and 9 o'clock positions that are compatible with 'nearly' all of the components of the M4 carbine Special Operations Modification (Sopmod) kit. The EGLM, now type classified as the Mk 13 Mod 0, is derived from the grenade launcher FNH developed for its modular F2000 5.56 mm assault rifle. The EGLM can be fitted to both calibre Scars and also used as a stand-alone weapon.

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It had previously been indicated that the Scar project could result in the fielding of 84,000 5.56 mm and 15,000 7.62 mm weapons. Favourable reports in 1964 from Special Forces units about the performance of the AR-15, the commercial version of the M16, in South Vietnam influenced the decision to adopt the M16 as the army's standard assault rifle. History could be poised to repeat itself with Scar.

Soldiers and marines who humped the M60 in the jungles of Vietnam would appreciate FN Herstal's 7.62 mm Minimi light machine gun, which was formally launched on the export market at Eurosatory 2006. The Belgian company designed the weapon, now type classed as the Mk 48 Mod 0 LMG, in response to a March 2001 Socom requirement for a 7.62-mm LMG to replace the worn-out M60s used by Seal units. At eight kilos the Mk 48 weighs 34% less than the US Army's standard FN Herstal M240B 7.62-mm general-purpose machine gun and has 70% parts commonality with the M240, the 5.56-mm M249 Squad Automatic and its lightweight 5.56-mm companion, the Mk 46, also developed by FN Herstal at the request of Socom. In April 2007 a report on the Foreign Comparative Test programme noted the success of the <<Special Operation Forces' 7.62 mm Lightweight Machine Guns from Belgium that significantly increases the organic firepower of Seal platoons in Iraq>>.

Through the US FMS programme the Brazilian Marine Corps has recently been equipped with the US Ordnance M60E4 LMG (designated the Mk 43 by the Department of Defense), the latest improved iteration of the M60 used in Vietnam. A significant improvement is the reduction in weight; the M60E4 weighs 9.25 kg with the short barrel fitted and measures 975-mm in length, 9.41 kg/1077-mm with the long barrel and 9.76 kg/940-mm with the assault barrel. Other improvements include a 35% increase in belt pull to improve reliability, a strengthened bipod, a forward pistol grip to improve handling and an optional MIL-STD-1913 rail mounted on the feed cover.

Shotguns have been popular in jungle operations, such as the British campaign in Malaya and Borneo, both for use in ambushes and carried by 'point men' on patrol. C-More Systems has recently begun production of the XM26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System, which attaches to the M4 carbine, M16A2/M16A4 rifles and Scar family. It can also be configured as an independent weapon. Fed from a five-round magazine the XM26 fires all standard lethal, non-lethal, and door-breaching twelve-gauge ammunition.

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In November 2002 the US Marine Corps received the first 400 of a planned buy of 3997 M1014 Joint Service Combat Shotguns. Developed by Benelli Armi of Italy as M4 Super 90, the semi-automatic weapon is fed from a tubular magazine which holds six twelve-gauge rounds. Ammunition types include rifled slugs, buckshot, birdshot, 'lock buster' and CS rounds. The weapon weighs 3.82 kg with an empty magazine and features a stock that can be extended, increasing the weapon's length from 886 mm to 1010 mm. Although intended primarily as a 'door buster' in urban operations the US Marine Corps will consider the utility of the M1014 for future jungle operations. The designation of the weapon as a joint service project is intended to result in the other services replacing 'legacy shotguns' with the new weapon.

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Truvelo Armoury of South Africa markets a twelve-gauge pump action shotgun developed by local firm Neostead for use by military and security forces in confined spaces. The weapon offers three advantages: compact size of 686 mm, although it features a 572-mm barrel, a weight of just over four kg and a twin tube magazine design that provides 13 rounds. The weapon is reported to be in service with the UK's Special Air Service. Neostead is developing a compact version with a reduced length of 550 mm and a nine-shot capability.

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Protecting the Amazon

The Brazilian Army's peacetime operational concept for the Brazilian Amazon involves four jungle infantry brigades, several Frontier Command Headquarters and a series of border platoon bases in remote areas. Patrols from the jungle infantry battalions conduct security operations along the frontier while the border platoon outposts anchor community and economic development at remote locations.

The Embraer EMB-314 Super Tucano trainer/light attack aircraft is the result of a contract awarded to the Brazilian aircraft manufacturer in 1995 to develop a light attack variant of it Super Tucano for use by the Brazilian Air Force (Fab) in the Amazon as a key component of the Sistema de Vigilancia da Amazonia (Sivyam) project. Following a successful development programme Embraer received a contract in August 2001 to build 51 AT-29 two-seat versions for the training role and 25 single seat A-29 ALX versions. The first aircraft was delivered in December 2003 with final delivery scheduled for later this year. The Dominican Republic bought ten Super Tucanos in August 2001 for pilot training and internal security missions and in December 2005 the Columbian Air Force ordered 25 aircraft for border patrol and internal security.

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Powered by a Pratt and Whitney Canada PT6A-68/3 turboprop engine the ALX can achieve a maximum speed of 560 kph. With a fuel capacity of 695 litres, the aircraft has an endurance of 6 hr 30 min and a range of over 1500 km. The ALX is armed with two wing-mounted .50 calibre machine guns and is able to carry up to 1500 kg of bombs and guided air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles on five hard-points. Elbit Systems supplies the avionics system for the ALX, which includes a head-up display, advanced mission computer, navigation system and two 152-mm x 203-mm colour liquid crystal multifunction displays. Survivability features include Kevlar armour protection for the pilot and critical systems redundancy. The ALX is capable of operating by day and night from unpaved runways.

Clean Water

Providing a plentiful supply of clean drinking water on jungle operations is vital to maintaining the immediate effectiveness of personnel and preventing the spread of waterborne illnesses and diseases. Michael Pritchard, the Chairman of the new British company Lifesaver Systems, was inspired to develop a personal water filtration system after watching the suffering caused by a lack of safe drinking water in the aftermath of the December 2004 tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana the following year. The Lifesaver bottle is being marketed to aid agencies, military customers and outdoors enthusiasts who require a simple, effective means to filter contaminated water to provide safe drinking water. <<The Lifesaver bottle is an innovative water purification device that can remove debris, bacteria and viruses from water utilizing a unique membrane filtration system,>> said Mark Richter, Programme Manager for the Marine Expeditionary Rifle Squad at Marine Corps Systems Command. <<With a 15-nanometre diameter filtration, it effectively creates fresh water instantly and safely for a soldier or marine. Water is weight. The Lifesaver bottle provides water scavenging capability and fulfils a critical need of sustainability on the battlefield.>>

At DSEi 2007 Gerber displayed its new Gerber Reservoir Assault System (Grasp) which integrates a tactical assault pack with a semi-rigid 'hydration reservoir' that sits against the back and adds structural strength to the pack. Gerber designed the Grasp over a two-year period with feedback from troops at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, Fort Benning, Georgia and other bases to ensure the system met their requirements. When fully assembled the Grasp has a capacity of 45 cubic centimetres while a two-pocket pack, with a 6882 cubic centimetre capacity, can be removed for use on short missions. The rectangular water reservoir holds 4.4 litres (150 ounces) and slides into an insulating neoprene sleeve. Gerber is developing additional pack that use the same reservoir which can be field washed and air dried in about 90 minutes. Besides water the reservoir can be used to carry hot and cold beverages with zero taste retention between cleanings.

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The US Army selected a CamelBak rehydration system for inclusion in the Rapid Fielding Initiative launched in 2002 to expedite the fielding of state-of-the-art equipment to soldiers to enhance 'their lethality, mobility, survivability and operational quality of life". More than one million soldiers have now been equipped with RFI items. The California company's hands-free hydration systems were already in service with special operations forces. Military models include the Ambush, which incorporates a three-litre water reservoir with a nine-litre cargo pocket, and the basic Thermobak 3L, which provides three litres of water. Other models offer increased cargo capacity.

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Armor Holdings, now a division of BAE Systems, offers a two kg capacity hydration system that is compatible with Modular Lightweight Load-carrying Equipment (Molle) that Armor Holdings produces for the US Army. Molle cargo pockets can be mounted directly to the fully insulated carrier for use as an assault pack and the hydration system can also be attached to combat body armour or load-carrying vests.

The Survivor 4i system, produced by BW Technologies, affords a way of purifying water from a stream or pool. The product uses a simple system, by which the bottle is filled with water, then shaken, which releases iodine into the water, and left to stand for fifteen minutes. The bottle is then squeezed which pushes the water through the filter either into a drinking receptacle or into another bottle for storage. Each replaceable filter will clean up to 350 litres of water.

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Clothing

The humidity of the rainforest presents some unique challenges as far as troop clothing is concerned. Humidity is a major problem, and striking a balance between clothing that is comfortable and which keeps the soldier protected from moisture is a difficult task. One of the biggest annoyances can be the seepage of moisture into a soldiers' boot. At the very least, trudging miles through mud in jungle boots is an unpleasant experience at best, but worst of all it can lead to the soldier suffering pain and incapacitation if their feet become prone to bacteriological infection.

One solution lies in systems such as the Techspun Environmental Sock System. The secret of Techsock is that it uses two different socks to keep the soldier's foot free of moisture. The Coolmax sock is worn over the foot and this soaks up moisture keeping it away from the skin. Meanwhile, an outer sock, made from wool and polypropylene insulates the foot against incoming moisture.

To keep the soldier dry when moving through the jungle, Gore, makers of the Gore-Tex material, have developed a lightweight rain suit that consists of a parka jacket and over-trousers. The parka covers the soldiers; upper body with the over trousers covering their legs with both garments designed to keep them dry and free of moisture. Like all Gore-Tex products, the material is designed in such a way that it can 'breath', preventing the wearer from overheating or becoming uncomfortable. To aid transportation, both the parka and trousers can be conveniently rolled-up and carried in a jacket or combat trouser pocket.

Communication/Navigation

Given that jungle operations are overwhelmingly fought as infantry-based actions, soldier-to-soldier communications are crucially important. All the more so, given that the dense undergrowth and high canopy can often frustrate visual contact and also deprive the soldier of good light coverage, even in the middle of the day (e.g. a camera used in a rainforest at midday will pop its flash open).

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At the same time, the harsh operating conditions of the jungle, including heat and moisture mean that modern electronic systems must be robust enough to survive in this unforgiving environment. One waterproof radio system is the Secrette SEC357GP radio system. Made by Racal Acoustics, the system includes a single rubber earphone and straps to secure it to the users' head. Meanwhile, an elastic strap contains a throat microphone. The entire system remains unaffected by even a heavy dousing of water. The design of the headset also means that it can be worn with infantry or paratrooper helmets if required.

Weighing in at a mere 695 grams, even with its antenna and battery is the MSHR radio. Also a Racal Acoustics product, the radio can withstand 20 metres of submersion in salt water. Despite its small size and lightweight the design is robust. For the user, it also offers voice and data communications over 100 channels. This can be done in with either clear, or encrypted reception and transmission, and provides coverage between 136 and 174 MHz.

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The primary concern with communicating in a jungle is that many tactical radio sets operate in UHF bands, which means they must have a line-of-sight connection, and the vegetation attenuates the RF signal to unusable levels. To remedy this, HF manpacks and hand-helds are the order of the day. Unfortunately, HF radios require longer antennas that inhibit the already difficult task of manoeuvring in the jungle environment.

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The solution is the have the right suite of antennas to over come the terrain's limitations. High-performance body-worn antennas have been developed to allow more freedom-of-movement but the laws of physics demand that the higher the antenna, the better the transmission. Detachable antennas that can be raised into the upper canopy via the 'tossing the ball-and-string over a branch' method have been developed to overcome this problem.

Dave Zwick, an international product manager for Harris, relates that a rebroadcast capability is paramount in jungle environments (and a standard feature in all newer Harris radio systems). The idea is to transmit a signal to a high point in the jungle where a repeater takes the information from a normal range of 18 to 20 km out to 80 to 100 km.

Communicating by satellite, a somewhat impossible option in jungle ops, can be overcome by using a repeater--and what better than a roving repeater? Drones, besides providing surveillance and a combat capability, are excellent platforms for retransmitting data and voice signals over the thick foliage and rolling jungle terrain.

In February 2008 the US Army installed Harris' Falcon III AN/PRC-152(C) radio into a Shadow 200 drone at part of a communication relay system for soldiers operating in obstructed line-of-sight environments.

There has been a tendency to believe that the thick canopy of the world's jungles precludes the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) navigation but this is not the case. GPS outage in rainforests was ostensibly caused by a lack of satellite coverage, but this has since been remedied with at least eight GPS satellites covering the tropical regions at any one time. As global GPS coverage has improved, so has GPS unit size and lightweight, waterproof systems now exist which soldiers can take with them into the rainforest.

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Rockwell Collins produces the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) family of systems. The PLGR-II GLS is a gun-laying system that can be carried by an individual soldier and which allows accurate weapon positioning and fire solutions to be plotted from its data. The system can store over 900 waypoint locations, a major benefit when navigating through the jungle, which is more often than not done on foot. Furthermore, the PLGR does not emit signals to betray a solder's position and is also resistant to GPS jamming devices. The design of the PLGR series has proved popular with the world's militaries with the United States Department of Defense being one of Rockwell Collin's biggest customers for this product.

Thales Navigations' Magellan range offers low-cost hand-held GPS receivers that are ideally suited for jungle operations. The company's Triton system boasts fast position plotting when under heavy jungle canopy. Meanwhile, the rubber casing of the unit gives the system excellent protection against impact and makes the unit buoyant in water.

Electro-Optics

The darkness of the rainforest, even during daylight, can play havoc with ones' eyes. The thick vegetation offers an enemy a myriad of hiding places while the humidity can cause conventional night vision systems to 'mist up', meaning that vital seconds in an engagement may be lost cleaning lens to ensure that laser sights can be used. This situation is even more dangerous when one realises that many jungle engagements occur at close range. However, help is at hand from two systems which are on the market.

Laser Devices in the United States produces sighting systems for infantry weapons. One of their flagship products is the DBAL family of laser sights. These weapons sights are waterproof in up to three metres of submersion, which renders them practically invulnerable to jungle humidity. A switch can change the illumination to either infrared or visible laser. The system also meets Mil-Std-810F requirements for operating in adverse environments. The company's DBAL-A2 system has been supplied to the US Department of Defense as the AN/PEQ-15A. The DBAL-A2 system, as well as having both infrared and visible laser illumination, also has a 'Super Power Point' laser system which is designed to provide enhanced illumination in bright daylight.

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Not so Easy to Hide

It used to be a relatively simple task to hide in the jungle. A few strikes with camo paint, hitting the highlight areas of the face, neck and hands. Strap some leaves onto one's head cover (helmet, patrol cap or 'drive-on' rag), slip a few into the shoulder straps of one's web gear to break-up the silhoutte--or better yet, jump into a ghillie suit and blend in with the terrain. For vehicle camouflage there are both static and mobile systems. Israel's Fibrotex has developed a series of double-sided, multi-spectral camouflage systems that cover the ultraviolet, visual, near infrared, thermal and radar ranges. Seen here, or more appropriately, not seen here, the company's Multi-Spectral Stationary Signature Management System (S-SMS) is protecting a Hummer, as a Fibrotex representative suggests, against all known sensors within the electromagnetic spectrum. Fibrotex' static camouflage systems can be printed with a different pattern on each side (e.g. woodland and desert) and the operator inside the camouflage can observe, track and fire through the netting. The company has a line of custom-made systems for infantry units, recon teams, forward observers and snipers--each having their own mission-specific concealment requirements

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