What research says about sustainable tourism development.

Sustainable development is a relatively recent concept that has emerged only during the past two decades. This concept was given further impetus in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in a report entitled, Our Common Future (WCED, 1987). Known as The Brundtland Report," its findings and recommendations made sustainable development a buzzword in the international development community. Although certainly controversial in nature and not without its critics, the WCED'S report has been received enthusiastically by the international community since its publication; and attempts are being made worldwide to investigate, initiate, and achieve sustainable approaches to development.

According to the WCED (1987), sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (p.43). This concept often is tied to sustainable use, referring to the notion that careful and sensitive economic development is possible without degrading or depleting natural and human resources needed by present and future generations. Sustainable use has become a central organizing principle for global environmental policy. As recently as June of 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, governments attempted to forge an action agenda based on sustainable development and use (Linden, 1993).

One recommendation of the WCED is that industries should be more efficient in resource use, generate less pollution and waste, be based on the use of renewable resources, and minimize irreversible adverse impacts on human health and the environment. Tourism often is presented as an ideal, non-polluting, and environmentally friendly, labor intensive industry.

Tourism relies on the development and utilization of natural, historical, cultural, and human resources in the local environment as tourist attractions and destinations. It is dependent both on these resources and on a clean and safe environment.

Although tourism is a potential source of negative impact and stress on the environment and host communties, Swinnerton and Hinch (1994) believed "increased emphasis is being placed on those forms of tourism that are particularly sensitive to promoting and retaining the integrity of natural and socio-cultural environments" (p.5). In many areas worldwide, especially in rural areas in both developing and developed countries, new development initiatives have begun to place more emphasis on the sustainable development of tourism resources as part of a viable economic base. Hunt (1992) suggested the concept of sustainable tourism development is "one of the healthiest insights of tourism" (p.2). However, the concept is not easily understood and - as policy - certainly not easily implemented (Burr and Walsh, 1994; Haider and Johnston, 1992).

Sustainable Tourism

Development

A definition of sustainable tourism is rather clear. Sustainable tourism may be thought of as "tourism which is in a form which can maintain its viability in an area for an indefinite period of time" (Butler, 1993, p.29). The definition of sustainable tourism development is quite different and more elusive, as it is a relatively recent concept whose definition win continue to evolve. Yet, a number of notions advanced by the WCED contribute to the definition. Inskeep (1991) thought of sustainable tourism development as "meeting the needs of present tourism and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future" (p.461). Sustainable tourism development involves management of all resources in such a way that "economic, social, and aesthetic needs [are fulfilled] while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems" (p.461). Butler (1993) believed that a working definition of sustainable development in the context of tourism could be taken as tourism which remains viable over an indefinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and processes" (p.29).

Sustainable development embodies the interdependencies among environmental, social, and economic issues and policies. These interdependencies should be taken into consideration for sustainable tourism development to be successful. Sustainable tourism development should be considered one part of a planning process that integrates tourism with other economic development initiatives in attempting to achieve sustainable development. According to Inskeep (1991), the goals of sustainable tourism are: to develop a greater awareness and understanding of the significant contributions that tourism can make to the environment, people, and the economy; to promote equity in development; to improve the quality of life of the host community; to provide a high quality of experience for the visitor; and to maintain the quality of the environment on which the foregoing goals depend (p.461). Complex social, economic, and environmental trade-offs, however, involve making hard political choices in sustainable tourism development. Butler (1993) believed the element of change in tourism is a crucial factor since sustainable development "implies some measure of stability and performance, at feast in the very long term view, and this does not blend with a highly dynamic and consistently changing phenomenon such as tourism" (p.30). According to McIntyre, Hethelington, and Inskeep (1993), achieving sustainable tourism development "requires a vision which encompasses a larger time and space context than that traditionally used in community planning and decision making" (p.40)

Criteria for Sustainable

Tourism Development

Tourism development has an important role to play in environmental protection and in economic and social development. Specifically, according to Cronin (1990), sustainable tourism development should meet certain criteria. It should follow ethical principles that respect the culture and environment of the host area, the economy and traditional way of life, the indigenous behavior, and the local leadership and political patterns. Sustainable tourism development should involve the local population in planning, proceed only with their approval, and provide for a degree of local control. It should be undertaken with equity in mind, with the idea of access to a fair distribution of benefits and costs among tourism promoters and host peoples and areas - now and in the future.

Along with equity, other issues involved in sustainable tourism development are those of balance and planning. Cronin (1990) stated, "Sustainable tourism development consists of finding the balance between a degree or type of development that will bring economic and other benefits to a community and the point at which that development starts to feed on rather than sustain the very elements at its basis" (p.15). Sustainable tourism development should be planned and managed for the protection of the natural environment for future generations, planned in an integrated manner with other economic sectors, and assessed on an ongoing basis to evaluate impacts and permit action to counter any negative effects. Thus, any of the approaches to sustainable tourism development and use, such as alternative tourism, soft tourism, green tourism, eco-tourism, adventure travel, or socially responsible travel, should focus fundamentally on achieving equity and balance, and all long-term and integrative planning and implementation efforts should be directed toward these ends.

Case Studies of Sustainable

Tourism Development

It follows from the above criteria that sustainable tourism development is determined largely by what stakeholders want it to be, and it can be accomplished only when these stakeholders have found mechanisms to work together and have access to vital and useful information. Stanley (1991) believed a review of cases where the sustainable development of tourism apparently is being achieved can help communities and rural areas reach their own sustainable objectives.

Case studies have been the methodology for researching sustainable tourism development and have occurred largely in an international context. One example is on the Pacific Island of Yap, where the development of tourism has been slow, small scale, and mainly owned by local Yapese, resulting in successful resource protection. As described by Mansperger (1992), tourism on Yap actually has fostered the preservation of culture, as the Yapese have been selective in accepting only those forms of tourism they feel are most appropriate. While benefitting from tourism, the Yapese have not sacrificed their indigenous culture.

In another example, the island nation of Bali is under considerable pressure from a rapidly expanding tourism industry and a degrading resource base due to a wide range of environmental impacts. Wall (1992) stated that strategies of selective tourism development have been employed in Bali that recognize environmental and cultural limitations and preserve environmental and cultural amenities. Of particular concern is the promotion of sustainable development options based on the Balinese culture.

In the Northwest Territories of Canada, Hamley (1991) described a community-based tourism policy that is being pursued by the territorial government which stresses the importance of developing a tourism industry that is substantially owned, operated, and controlled by northerners and reflects the aspirations of local communities. Hamley believed that if carefully planned, tourism development can be sustainable here and both use and respect northern cultures, lifestyles, and natural resources.

Owen, Witt, and Gammon (1993) described three recent rural tourism projects in Wales-two festivals and a heritage tourism project. Rather than large-scale rural tourism, the focus was on alternative rural tourism characterized as being "small scale and locally controlled, and offering indigenous tourism products or programmes [sic], often with a strong, natural resource and conservation component" (p.467). The major aim was the planned use of resources for a countryside area which will lead to an increase in the general welfare of the environment, the community, and the visitor. Community involvement was encouraged both prior to and during the development stages of each project "to foster commitment and ensure that the needs of the host community were recognized (p.465). By adopting principles of sustainable development within a sustainable policy framework and by implementing these through effective partnerships and practices, success was realized in achieving sustainable tourism development.

Although there have been some apparent successes in sustainable tourism development in the international context, a sense of caution belies the hope for tourism's contribution to sustainable development. Zurick (1992) stated that adventure tourism in Nepal has promoted "fundamental shifts in local nature-society relations as subsistence populations turn to the tourism economy for livelihoods and thereby abandon traditional subsistence pursuits. As a result, conflicts ensue over resource use, work, economic exchange, cultural identity, and residence" (p.625).

In northern Thailand, Dearden (1991) described the growth in popularity of trekking that has resulted in a number of negative impacts to the indigenous hill tribes, especially due to the challenge posed by rapid cultural change. A number of proposals have been partially implemented to mitigate impacts, but "the component missing from all of them is consultation with the people most affected-the hill tribes themselves" (p.412).

Testers (1990) reviewed the situation on the island of Curacao, where the government and industries have raised the vision of tourism as being the ideal solution to the problems of poverty and unemployment; "the majority of the local population catches at this straw and supports the dominating political powers" (p.10). Resort tourism development has been promoted, but in most cases, resorts cannot be built, run, and supplied by the tourist destinations themselves. Therefore, this development has lead to a structural dependency largely supported by the government and industry. The local population's "attitude and that of the authorities and industries obstructs the sustainable development of the island and tourism" (p.10).

In North America some apparent successes with sustainable tourism development are evident. For example, Dahms (1991) described the experience of the rural community of St. Jacobs, Ontario, where a re-emergence of "community" occurred after several years of economic decline when one individual resident sparked a local interest in developing a dynamic tourism-based community around the local Mennonite cultural heritage. This local leader encouraged close cooperation and involvement of residents, local control of development, and innovative ideas focused on tourism development.

In Boxley Valley, Arkansas, and Ebey's Landing, Washington, informed and involved residents formed partnerships with the National Park Service to preserve natural resources for tourism and community use and to develop sustainable communities (Lins, 1991). Potential benefits for all involved have been realized through cooperative support for the projects.

Local leaders from Linn County, Oregon, joined forces with staff from The Wilderness Society (1992) and consultants from a planning and public involvement agency to stem increasingly high rates of unemployment and increasing economic decline in local timber-dependent communities. Here the private business sector and local, state, and federal agencies joined local leaders in a strong partnership to form a coalition to develop a strategic plan designed to increase outdoor recreation and tourism opportunities through the promotion and development of both the natural and cultural amenities in the region.

Quality Growth in Tourism and

Approaches to Sustainable

Tourism Development

Nelson (1993) pointed out that quality growth in tourism is not possible without careful attention to the principles of sustainability which include an interest in natural and human diversity, maintenance of essential ecological processes, conservation of productivity, and equity in the sense of high regard for cultural heritage and access to economic, social, and natural opportunities for people generally. Of critical importance to sustainable tourism development is "an informed, open participatory public process for decision making" (p.259). People need to be empowered and involved, working together toward tourism development goals within the context of sustainability. This requires more attention to attitudes, values, preparedness, and motivation for cooperative action and can be envisioned as "involving mutual learning and adaptation among all concerned parties in the context of shared responsibility and equity" (p.260).

Gunn (1994) believed that the best solution to sustainable tourism development is likely to occur not from advocacy of environmentalists or governments, but from developers of tourism. "When the fundamental of the dependency of all tourism upon the resource base becomes apparent to developers, they will see that it is in their best interests to sustain the quality of the natural and cultural resources" (p.89). Gunn proposed that low-impact tourism development, characterized as small scale and careful in progress, which is appropriate and sensitive to the local natural and socio-cultural environment, holds the most promise for achieving sustainable development. Such an approach may be integrated more readily into the existing social and economic life of a community (p.91).

If residents of a community are interested in developing their tourism resources to diversify and improve their local economy, this type of approach can facilitate resident involvement and participation in decision making and local control of development. Even with strong local leadership and community interest and support, the expertise of specialists not available locally may be needed to plan and implement tourism development projects and secure supporting funding.

Cooperative interaction can create networks both within and outside the community, roles for involved community members, and a shared experience which can lead to dynamic sustainable development of tourism. This cooperation can create opportunities for further community development and contribute to the general quality of life of community residents.

As a concept, sustainable tourism development is relatively new, and as new policy, it continually is being developed and refined. Its practice requires application and experimentation, monitoring, assessment, modification and reapplication, and continued study. One point is clear-although certainly complex, challenging, problematic (at times), and perhaps now more of an ideal than a reality-sustainable development will continue to be of importance to the ever-growing tourism industry within a planning and management framework. It can be an important link between environmental protection and sound social, economic, and resource development policies.

References

Burr, S.W. and Walsh, J.A. (1994). A hidden value of sustainable tourism development. Trends in Sustainable Rural Tourism Development, 31(1),9-13.

Butler, R.W. (1993). Tourism-an evolutionary perspective. In J.G. Nelson, R.W. Butler, and G. Wall (Eds.) Tourism and Sustainable Development Monitoring, Planning, Managing (pp.27-43). Waterloo, Ontario: Department of Geography, University of Waterloo.

Cronin, L. (1990). A strategy for tourism and sustainable development. World Leisure and Recreation Journal Fall, 12-18.

Dahms, F. (1991). Economic revitalization in St. Jacobs, Ontario: ingredients for transferring a dying village into a thriving small town. Small Town, 21(6),12-18.

Dearden, P. (1991). Tourism and sustainable development in northern Thailand. The Geographic Review, 81, 400-413.

Gunn, C.A. (1994). Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases. Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.

Haider, W. and Johnston, M. (1992). Tourism and community development, Annals of Tourism Research, 19(3), 580-583.

Hamley, W. (1991). Tourism in the Northwest Territories. The Geographic Review, 81(4), 389-399.

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Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

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Mansperger, M.C. (1992). Yap: a case of benevolent tourism. Practicing Anthropology, 14(2),10-13.

McIntyre, G., Hetherington, A., and Inskeep, E. (1993). Sustainable Tourism Development Guide for Local Planners. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization.

Nelson, J.G. (1993). Are tourism growth and sustainability objectives compatible? Civics, assessment, informed choice. In J.G. Nelson, R.W. Butler, and G. Wall (Eds.) Tourism and Sustainable Development Monitoring, Planning, Managing (pp.259-267). Waterloo, Ontario: Department of Geography, University of Waterloo.

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