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Does a student's level of confidence in his or her ability to practice affect the way he or she practices? This rather intriguing question was the basis for a recent study in Norway titled "Strategies and Self-efficacy Beliefs in Instrumental and Vocal Individual Practice: A Study of Students in Higher Music Education." (1) Siw Nielsen states that many music students enter higher education feeling they have not been taught how to practice by their previous teachers. This study investigated which strategies used during practice were most relevant to improving performance and whether their perceptions of self-efficacy were correlated to these practice strategies. Self-efficacy was defined as "people's judgment of their capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to attain designated types of performances." (2)

The author chose first-year undergraduate music students because it is at this point in their careers when they must assume responsibility for their practice habits and musical achievement. Previous studies in other academic areas have shown very positive relationships between self-efficacy beliefs and the use of studying and learning strategies, and these beliefs have been found to relate to persistence and performance. Students who were confident about their academic abilities persisted longer and worked harder than those who doubted their capabilities. It is interesting to note that a previous study of the relationship between self-efficacy and musical performance in children was reviewed in this column in the June/July 2003 issue of American Music Teacher. In the conclusion of that study involving children, the authors wrote:

      The principal result is the strong
   association between self-efficacy
   and actual performance, and the
   former's clear superiority as a predictor
   of actual performance in a
   graded external music examination
   ... performance is arguably the
   most important image-forming
   component of an individual's
   identity as a musician.
   Consequently, it is perhaps not
   surprising that students' perceptions
   of self-efficacy should play a major
   role in how they perform.
   However, we still do not understand
   properly the mechanisms
   whereby students come to believe
   in their own abilities to perform
   well. (3)

Nielsen's study took this concept of self-efficacy affecting outcomes and investigated older students, exploring the strategies used for superior practice. He addressed three specific questions:

* To what extent do first-year music students use specific learning and study strategies?

* What is the relationship between first-year music students' self-efficacy beliefs and strategy use?

* Are there any differences in use of strategies and self-efficacy beliefs with regard to main instrument, degree program or gender? (4)

The participants were freshman music students pursuing various degrees at six Norwegian institutions of higher learning. They reported their learning and study strategies by taking The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (the MSLQ-inventory), which investigates cognitive strategies (rehearsal, elaboration, organization and critical thinking), metacognitive strategies (metacognitive and self-regulation--to what extent they monitor and regulate their problem solving during practice) and resource management strategies (time management and study environment, effort regulation, peer learning and help seeking). Their self-efficacy beliefs were evaluated by their responses on a subscale of the MSLQ-inventory that rated self-appraisal of the ability to accomplish a task.

Most results were what teachers would expect to see: students who were confident about their ability to learn used more learning and practicing strategies. There were no significant differences in strategy usage between the instrument groups or degree programs. One significant result was a bit surprising: male students generally rated themselves as more efficacious and made greater use of critical thinking strategies than female students. (5) Nielsen writes:

      ... the findings suggest that
   female and male students use the
   same range of learning strategies
   with the exception that male students
   reported making significantly
   more critical evaluations with
   respect to standards of excellence
   than female students. The study
   indicated that most of the students
   used a full range of strategies
   rather than one particular type,
   however ... they tended to use help-seeking
   and peer-learning strategies
   to a lesser extent than other strategies." (6)

Nielsen writes that teachers in higher music education should be especially aware that female students have less confidence in their ability to practice their instrument. He concludes:

      ... it remains the shared responsibility
   of instrumental teachers
   and the institutions to increase
   their students' competence and
   confidence as they progress through
   higher music education.
   Educational programs that seek to
   empower students must not only
   cultivate the skills to succeed but
   must endeavor to maximize the
   will for success by nurturing the
   belief that one can indeed succeed
   and encouraging the self-regulatory
   strategies required to help bring
   about that success. (7)

Reflections

This study specifically investigated the self-efficacy beliefs of first-year college music students. But one must ask: how did they get that way? Obviously, the practice strategies they used were formed over the history of their study of the instrument. Just as, obviously, their confidence in the effectiveness of their practice strategies also was developed over the time preceding their entrance into collegiate study. As a teacher of college and pre-college students, I spend a great deal of lesson time training the student in practice strategies. I have never, however, explored whether students feel confident about their execution of the strategies in their home practice. When an assigned piece comes back to the lesson and has not improved with the application of the suggested practice techniques, what do we usually assume? I often guess that either the students did not practice enough, they did not employ the suggested strategies or the strategies were wrong for the particular problems. But do we ever investigate whether students have confidence in their approach to practicing? This study seems to indicate that it could be a very influential factor in their success. The next question is, of course, if they are not being successful in their practicing, how can we turn the tide so they can have greater confidence in their ability to practice successfully? The concept of structuring the lesson, and the ensuing practice time, for success might involve spending more time on pieces where success is almost ensured, until a more positive attitude is instilled; then more challenging pieces will reinforce that attitude and, hopefully, establish a more positive spiral of confidence and Success.

NOTES

(1.) Nielsen, Siw. "Strategies and Self-efficacy Beliefs in Instrumental and Vocal Individual Practice: A Study of Students in Higher Music Education." Psychology of Music, 32 (4), (2004): 418-431.

(2.) Ibid., 419.

(3.) McCormick, J. and G. McPherson, "The Role of Self-Efficacy in a Musical Performance Examination: An Exploratory Structural Equation Analysis," Psychology of Music, 31 (2003); 45.

(4.) Nielsen, 421.

(5.) Ibid., 427.

(6.) Ibid., 424-425.

Rebecca Grooms Johnson is the director of keyboard pedagogy at Capital University in Columbus, Ohio. She is an experienced independent piano teacher and a past president of the Ohio MTA. Johnson holds a Ph.D. degree in piano pedagogy.