West Nile fever-a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe.West Nile virus West Nile virus, microorganism and the infection resulting from it, which typically produces no symptoms or a flulike condition. The virus is a flavivirus and is related to a number of viruses that cause encephalitis. causes sporadic cases and outbreaks of human and equine disease in Europe (western Mediterranean and southern Russia in 1962-64, Belarus and Ukraine in the 1970s and 1980s, Romania in 1996-97, Czechland in 1997, and Italy in 1998). Environmental factors, including human activities, that enhance population densities of vector mosquitoes (heavy rains followed by floods, irrigation irrigation, in agriculture, artificial watering of the land. Although used chiefly in regions with annual rainfall of less than 20 in. (51 cm), it is also used in wetter areas to grow certain crops, e.g., rice. , higher than usual temperature, or formation of ecologic niches that enable mass breeding of mosquitoes) could increase the incidence of West Nile fever West Nile fever West Nile meningoencephalitis Infectious disease An acute, mosquito-borne flaviviral infection endemic–rarely, epidemic–in the Near East, Africa, former Soviet Union, India Clinical After a 3-6 day incubation, children present with a . The 1996-97 outbreak of West Nile fever in and near Bucharest, Romania, with more than 500 clinical cases and a case-fatality rate approaching 10% (1-3), was the largest outbreak of arboviral illness in Europe since the Ockelbo-Pogosta-Karelian fever epidemic caused by Sindbis virus Sindbis virus n. An alphavirus that is the causative agent of Sindbis fever. in northern Europe in the 1980s. This latest outbreak reaffirmed that mosquito-borne viral diseases viral diseases Diseases caused by viruses. Long-term immunity usually follows viral childhood diseases (see chickenpox). The common cold recurs into adulthood because many different viruses cause its symptoms, and immunity against one does not protect against others. may occur on a mass scale, even in temperate climates. West Nile virus is a member of the Japanese encephalitis Japanese Encephalitis Definition Japanese encephalitis is an infection of the brain caused by a virus. The virus is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes. antigenic complex of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae (4). All known members of this complex (Alfuy, Japanese encephalitis, Kokobera, Koutango, Kunjin, Murray Valley encephalitis Murray Valley encephalitis see Murray Valley encephalitis. , St. Louis encephalitis St. Louis encephalitis see St. Louis encephalitis. , Stratford, Usutu, and West Nile viruses) are transmissible transmissible /trans·mis·si·ble/ (trans-mis´i-b'l) capable of being transmitted. trans·mis·si·ble adj. Capable of being conveyed from one person to another. by mosquitoes and many of them can cause febrile febrile /feb·rile/ (feb´ril) pertaining to or characterized by fever. feb·rile adj. Of, relating to, or characterized by fever; feverish. , sometimes fatal, illnesses in humans. West Nile virus was first isolated from the blood of a febrile woman in the West Nile West Nile may refer to:
Asia - the largest continent with 60% of the earth's population; it is joined to Europe on the west to form Eurasia; it is the site of some of the world's earliest civilizations , Azerbaijan, Botswana, Central African Republic Central African Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 3,800,000), 240,534 sq mi (622,983 sq km), central Africa. The landlocked nation is bordered by Chad (N), Sudan (E), Congo (Kinshasa) and Congo (Brazzaville) (S), and Cameroon (W). , Cote d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire), Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Israel, Kazakhstan, Madagascar, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, South Africa South Africa, Afrikaans Suid-Afrika, officially Republic of South Africa, republic (2005 est. pop. 44,344,000), 471,442 sq mi (1,221,037 sq km), S Africa. , Tajikistan, Turkmenia, Uganda, and Uzbekistan. Furthermore, West Nile virus antibodies have been detected in human sera from Armenia, Borneo, China, Georgia, Iraq, Kenya, Lebanon, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka Sri Lanka (srē läng`kə) [Sinhalese,=resplendent land], formerly Ceylon, ancient Taprobane, officially Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, island republic (2005 est. pop. , Sudan, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, and Turkey (8-10). Kunjin virus Kunjin virus a strain of West Nile virus, generally considered apathogenic but has been isolated from horses with encephalomyelitis. See also encephalitis. is closely related to West Nile virus (11,12), representing a counterpart or subtype (programming) subtype - If S is a subtype of T then an expression of type S may be used anywhere that one of type T can and an implicit type conversion will be applied to convert it to type T. for Australia and Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, region of Asia (1990 est. pop. 442,500,000), c.1,740,000 sq mi (4,506,600 sq km), bounded roughly by the Indian subcontinent on the west, China on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the east. ; some West Nile virus seroreactions in Southeast Asia may, in fact, represent antibodies to Kunjin virus. West Nile Virus Ecology Arthropod arthropod Any member of the largest phylum, Arthropoda, in the animal kingdom. Arthropoda consists of more than one million known invertebrate species in four subphyla: Uniramia (five classes, including insects), Chelicerata (three classes, including arachnids and horseshoe Vectors Mosquitoes, largely bird-feeding species, are the principal vectors of West Nile virus. The virus has been isolated from 43 mosquito species, predominantly of the genus Culex Culex /Cu·lex/ (ku´leks) a genus of mosquitoes found throughout the world, many species of which are vectors of disease-producing organisms. Cu·lex n. (Table 1). In Africa and the Middle East, the main vector is Cx. univittatus (although Cx. poicilipes, Cx. neavei, Cx. decens, Aedes albocephalus, or Mimomyia spp. play an important role in certain areas). In Europe, the principal vectors are Cx. pipiens, Cx. modestus, and Coquillettidia richiardii, and in Asia, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, and Cx. vishnui predominate. Successful experimental transmission of the virus has been described in Culiseta longiareolata, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, and Ae. albopictus (8,13). Transovarial transmission Transovarial transmission occurs in certain arthropod vectors as they transmit disease-causing bacteria from parent arthropod to offspring arthropod. For instance, Rickettsia rickettsii of the virus has been demonstrated in Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Ae. aegypti, and Ae. albopictus, though at low rates. Table 1. Isolations of West Nile virus from hematophagous hematophagous subsisting on blood, e.g. hematophagous flies. arthropods (7-10)
Species No. Countries
Mosquitoes
Culex antennatus(a) 6 Egypt, Madagascar
decens group 8 Madagascar
ethiopicus 1 Ethiopia
guiarti 1 Cote d"Ivoire
modestus 3 France, Russia
neavei 4 Senegal, South Africa
nigripes 1 Central African Republic
perexiguus 1 Israel
perfuscus group 3 Central African Republic, Senegal
pipiens(a) 7 South Africa, Egypt, Israel,
Romania, Czechland, Bulgaria(b)
poicilipes 29 Senegal
pruina 1 Central African Republic
quinquefasciatus(a) 7 India, Pakistan, Madagascar
scottii 1 Madagascar
theileri(a) 4 South Africa
tritaeniorhynchus(a) 3 Pakistan, India, Madagascar
univittatus(a) 51 Egypt, Israel, South Africa,
Madagascar
vishnui(a) group 6 India, Pakistan
weschei 1 Central African Republic
sp. 3 Egypt, Algeria, Central African
Republic
Coquillettidia metallica 1 Uganda
microannulata 1 South Africa
richiardii 5 South Russia, Bulgaria(b)
Mansonia uniformis 1 Ethiopia
Aedes aegypti(a) 1 Madagascar
africanus 1 Central African Republic
albocephalus 35 Madagascar
albothorax 1 Kenya
cantans 7 Slovakia, Ukraine, Bulgaria(b)
caspius(a) 1 Ukraine
circumluteolus 2 South Africa, Madagascar
excrucians 1 Ukraine
juppi+caballus 1 South Africa
madagascarensis 1 Madagascar
vexans 3 Senegal, Russia
Anopheles brunnipes 1 Madagascar
coustani 1 Israel
maculipalpis 1 Madagascar
maculipennis 3 Portugal, Ukraine
subpictus 1 India
sp. 1 Madagascar
Mimomyia hispida 8 Senegal
lacustris 4 Senegal
splendens 6 Senegal
sp. 2 Senegal
Aedeomyia africana 1 Senegal
Soft ticks
Argas hermanni(a) 3 Egypt
Ornithodoros capensis(a) 5 Azerbaijan
Hard ticks
Hyalomma marginatum 5 Astrakhan, Azerbaijan
detritum 1 Turkmenistan
Rhipicephalus turanicus 1 Azerbaijan
muhsamae 1 Central African Republic
Amblyomma variegatum 1 Central African Republic
Dermacentor marginatus(a) 1 Moldavia
(a) Experimental transmission of the virus also demonstrated. (b) Detected in mosquitoes by immunofluorescence Immunofluorescence A technique that uses a fluorochrome to indicate the occurrence of a specific antigen-antibody reaction. The fluorochrome labels either an antigen or an antibody. assay. Virus isolations have occasionally been reported from other hematophagous arthropods (e.g., bird-feeding argasid [soft] or amblyommine [hard] ticks) (Table 1), and experimental transmission has been observed in Ornithodoros savignyi, O. moubata, O. maritimus, O. erraticus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, R. rossicus, Dermacentor reticulatus, and Haemaphysalis leachii (8,13). Vertebrate Hosts Wild birds are the principal hosts of West Nile virus. The virus has been isolated from a number of wetland and terrestrial avian species in diverse areas (7-10,14-16). High, long-term viremia viremia /vi·re·mia/ (vi-re´me-ah) the presence of viruses in the blood. vi·re·mi·a n. The presence of viruses in the bloodstream. , sufficient to infect vector mosquitoes, has been observed in infected birds (7,17,18). The virus persists in the organs of inoculated ducks and pigeons for 20 to 100 days (18). Migratory birds are therefore instrumental in the introduction of the virus to temperate areas of Eurasia during spring migrations (12,14-16,19). Rarely, West Nile virus has been isolated from mammals (Arvicanthis niloticus, Apodemus flavicollis, Clethrionomys glareolus, sentinel mice and hamsters, Lepus europaeus, Rousettus leschenaulti Leschenault's Rousette Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820) is a species of fruit bat found in South and Southeast Asia. Distribution The distribution range includes Pakistan, India, Nepal, Assam, Myanmar, Indochina, and Java (Lekagul and McNeely, 1977). , camels, cattle, horses, dogs, Galago galago: see bush baby. galago Any of six species of small, tree-dwelling primates (genus Galago) found in forests of sub-Saharan Africa. Galagos are gray, brown, or reddish or yellowish brown animals with large eyes and ears, long hind legs, soft senegalensis, humans) in enzootic en·zo·ot·ic adj. Prevalent among or restricted to animals of a specific geographic area. Used of a disease. n. An enzootic disease. enzootic peculiar to or present constantly in a location. See also endemic. foci (8-10). Mammals are less important than birds in maintaining transmission cycles of the virus in ecosystems. Only horses and lemurs (20) have moderate viremia and seem to support West Nile virus circulation locally. Frogs (Rana ridibunda) also can harbor the virus, and their donor ability for Cx. pipiens has been confirmed (21). Transmission Cycles Although Palearctic natural foci of West Nile virus infections are mainly situated in wetland ecosystems (river deltas or flood plains) and are characterized by the bird-mosquito cycle, argasid and amblyommine ticks may serve as substitute vectors and form a bird-tick cycle in certain dry and warm habitats lacking mosquitoes. Even a frog-mosquito cycle (21) may function under certain circumstances. In Europe, West Nile virus circulation is confined to two basic types of cycles and ecosystems: rural (sylvatic sylvatic /syl·vat·ic/ (sil-vat´ik) sylvan; pertaining to, located in, or living in the woods. sylvatic found in the woods; occurring in animals of the forest. ) cycle (wild, usually wetland birds and ornithophilic mosquitoes) and urban cycle (synanthropic or domestic birds and mosquitoes feeding on both birds and humans, mainly Cx. pipiens/molestus). The principal cycle is rural, but the urban cycle predominated in Bucharest during the 1996-97 outbreak (2,3). Circulation of West Nile fever in Europe is similar to that of St. Louis encephalitis in North America North America, third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. , where the rural cycle of exoanthropic birds--Cx, tarsalis alternates with the urban cycle of synanthropic birds--Cx, pipiens/ quinquefasciatus. West Nile Fever in Humans and Other Vertebrates Humans West Nile fever in humans usually is a febrile, influenzalike illness, characterized by an abrupt onset (incubation period incubation period n. 1. See latent period. 2. See incubative stage. Incubation period is 3 to 6 days) of moderate to high fever (3 to 5 days, infrequently biphasic bi·pha·sic adj. Having two distinct phases: a biphasic waveform; a biphasic response to a stimulus. , sometimes with chills), headache (often frontal), sore throat Sore Throat Definition Sore throat, also called pharyngitis, is a painful inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the pharynx. It is a symptom of many conditions, but most often is associated with colds or influenza. , backache back·ache n. Discomfort or a pain in the region of the back or spine. , myalgia myalgia /my·al·gia/ (mi-al´jah) muscular pain.myal´gic epidemic myalgia see under pleurodynia. my·al·gia n. , arthralgia arthralgia /ar·thral·gia/ (ahr-thral´jah) pain in a joint. ar·thral·gia n. Severe pain in a joint. Also called arthrodynia. , fatigue, conjunctivitis conjunctivitis (kənjəngtəvī`təs), inflammation or infection of the mucosal membrane that covers the eyeball and lines the eyelid, usually acute, caused by a virus or, less often, by a bacillus, an allergic reaction, or an , retrobulbar retrobulbar /ret·ro·bul·bar/ (-bul´bar) 1. behind the medulla oblongata. 2. behind the eyeball. retrobulbar 1. behind the pons. 2. behind the eyeball. pain, maculopapular or roseolar rash (in approximately half the cases, spreading from the trunk to the extremities and head), lymphadenopathy lymphadenopathy /lym·phad·e·nop·a·thy/ (-op´ah-the) disease of the lymph nodes. angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy , angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy with dysproteinemia , anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain Abdominal pain can be one of the symptoms associated with transient disorders or serious disease. Making a definitive diagnosis of the cause of abdominal pain can be difficult, because many diseases can result in this symptom. Abdominal pain is a common problem. , diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms (9). Occasionally ([is less than] 15% of cases), acute aseptic meningitis aseptic meningitis Infectious disease Nonpurulent meningeal inflammation, which is more common in those < age 30 Etiology Viruses, especially Coxsackievirus and echovirus, circumscribed bacterial infections, hemorrhage, neoplasia–eg leukemia and lymphoma, or encephalitis encephalitis (ĕnsĕf'əlī`təs), general term used to describe a diffuse inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, usually of viral origin, often transmitted by mosquitoes, in contrast to a bacterial infection of the meninges (associated with neck stiffness, vomiting, confusion, disturbed consciousness, somnolence somnolence /som·no·lence/ (som´no-lens) drowsiness or sleepiness, particularly in excess. som·no·lence n. 1. A state of drowsiness; sleepiness. 2. , tremor of extremities, abnormal reflexes, convulsions Convulsions Also termed seizures; a sudden violent contraction of a group of muscles. Mentioned in: Heat Disorders , pareses, and coma), anterior myelitis myelitis /my·eli·tis/ (mi?e-li´tis) 1. inflammation of the spinal cord; often expanded to include noninflammatory spinal cord lesions. 2. inflammation of the bone marrow (osteomyelitis). , hepatosplenomegaly, hepatitis, pancreatitis, and myocarditis Myocarditis Definition Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the heart muscle (myocardium) that can result from a variety of causes. While most cases are produced by a viral infection, an inflammation of the heart muscle may also be instigated by occur. Laboratory findings involve a slightly increased sedimentation rate sedimentation rate n. The degree of rapidity with which red blood cells sink in a specimen of drawn blood, which when elevated may indicate anemia or inflammation. Also called erythrocyte sedimentation rate, sed rate. and a mild leukocytosis Leukocytosis Definition Leukocytosis is a condition characterized by an elevated number of white cells in the blood. Description Leukocytosis is a condition that affects all types of white blood cells. ; cerebrospinal fluid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Clear, colourless liquid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord and fills the spaces in them. It helps support the brain, acts as a lubricant, maintains pressure in the skull, and cushions shocks. in patients with central nervous system involvement is clear, with moderate pleocytosis pleocytosis /pleo·cy·to·sis/ (ple?o-si-to´sis) presence of a greater than normal number of cells in cerebrospinal fluid. ple·o·cy·to·sis n. and elevated protein. The virus can be recovered from the blood for up to 10 days in immunocompetent im·mu·no·com·pe·tent adj. Having the normal bodily capacity to develop an immune response following exposure to an antigen. im febrile patients, as late as 22 to 28 days after infection in immunocompromised immunocompromised /im·mu·no·com·pro·mised/ (-kom´pro-mizd) having the immune response attenuated by administration of immunosuppressive drugs, by irradiation, by malnutrition, or by certain disease processes (e.g., cancer). patients; peak viremia occurs 4 to 8 days postinfection. Recovery is complete (less rapid in adults than in children, often accompanied by long-term myalgias and weakness), and permanent sequelae sequelae Clinical medicine The consequences of a particular condition or therapeutic intervention have not been reported. Most fatal cases have been recorded in patients older than 50 years. Many of the West Nile fever symptoms have been reproduced in volunteers with underlying neoplastic neoplastic /neo·plas·tic/ (ne?o-plas´tik) 1. pertaining to a neoplasm. 2. pertaining to neoplasia. neoplastic pertaining to neoplasia or a neoplasm. disease who had been inoculated with virus to achieve pyrexia pyrexia /py·rex·ia/ (pi-rek´se-ah) pl. pyrex´iae fever.pyrex´ial py·rex·i·a n. See fever. py·rex and oncolysis (22). Hundreds of West Nile fever cases have been described in Israel and South Africa. The largest African epidemic, with approximately 3,000 clinical cases, occurred in an arid region of the Cape Province Cape Province, former province, S South Africa. Under the South African constitution of 1994 it was divided into Eastern Cape, Western Cape, Northern Cape, and part of a fourth province, North West. after heavy rains in 1974 (23). An outbreak with approximately 50 patients, eight of whom died, was described in Algeria in 1994 (1). Other cases or outbreaks have been observed in Azerbaijan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire), Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Madagascar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Sudan, and in a few European countries. Horses Equine disease, called Near Eastern equine encephalitis Eastern equine encephalitis A rare, sporadic, and aggressive enzootic infection by a single-stranded RNA Togavirus that primarily affects birds Vector Ornithophilic mosquito, Culiseta melanura in Egypt and lourdige in France, was observed and experimentally reproduced as fever and diffuse encephalomyelitis encephalomyelitis /en·ceph·a·lo·my·eli·tis/ (en-sef?ah-lo-mi?e-li´tis) inflammation of the brain and spinal cord. acute disseminated encephalomyelitis with a moderate to high fatality rate fa·tal·i·ty rate n. See death rate. fatality rate see case fatality rate. in Egypt (24), France (c. 50 cases in 1962-65) (25), Italy (14 cases in 1998, six died or were euthanised) (R. Lelli, G. Ferrari, pers. comm.), Portugal (26) and Morocco (42 of 94 affected horses died) (27). In the 1960s, the biphasic, encephalomyelitic form, which causes staggering gait and weakness to paralysis of the hind legs, was apparent among infected semiferal horses in Camargue (25). Other Mammals Inoculation inoculation, in medicine, introduction of a preparation into the tissues or fluids of the body for the purpose of preventing or curing certain diseases. The preparation is usually a weakened culture of the agent causing the disease, as in vaccination against of sheep with West Nile virus results in fever, abortion in pregnant ewes, and rare encephalitis, in contrast to the asymptomatic infection seen in pigs and dogs (9,28). Rabbits, adult albino albino (ălbī`nō) [Port.,=white], animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The absence of pigment is observed in the body covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and in the iris of the eye. rats, and guinea pigs are resistant to West Nile virus infection, but laboratory mice and Syrian hamsters are markedly susceptible; they often become ill with fatal encephalitis, even when inoculated peripherally (8). Adult rodents stressed or immunosuppressed Immunosuppressed A state in which the immune system is suppressed by medications during the treatment of other disorders, like cancer, or following an organ transplantation. Mentioned in: Fifth Disease by cold, isolation, cyclophosphamide cyclophosphamide /cy·clo·phos·pha·mide/ (-fos´fah-mid) a cytotoxic alkylating agent of the nitrogen mustard group; used as an antineoplastic, as an immunosuppressant to prevent transplant rejection, and to treat some diseases , corticosterone corticosterone (kôr'təkōstĕr`ōn), steroid hormone secreted by the outer layer, or cortex, of the adrenal gland. Classed as a glucocorticoid, corticosterone helps regulate the conversion of amino acids into carbohydrates and , or bacterial endotoxin Endotoxin A biologically active substance produced by bacteria and consisting of lipopolysaccharide, a complex macromolecule containing a polysaccharide covalently linked to a unique lipid structure, termed lipid A. contract fatal encephalitis, even when an attenuated Attenuated Alive but weakened; an attenuated microorganism can no longer produce disease. Mentioned in: Tuberculin Skin Test attenuated having undergone a process of attenuation. viral strain is given (29). Inoculation of rhesus and bonnet monkeys (but not cynomolgus monkeys or chimpanzees) causes fever, ataxia ataxia (ətăk`sēə), lack of coordination of the voluntary muscles resulting in irregular movements of the body. Ataxia can be brought on by an injury, infection, or degenerative disease of the central nervous system, e.g. , and prostration prostration /pros·tra·tion/ (pros-tra´shun) extreme exhaustion or lack of energy or power. heat prostration see under exhaustion. pros·tra·tion n. with occasional encephalitis, tremor of extremities, pareses, or paralysis. Infection may be fatal or cause long-term virus persistence in survivors (5,6,30). Birds Birds usually do not show any symptoms when infected with West Nile virus. However, natural disease due to the virus has been observed in a pigeon in Egypt (7), and inoculation of certain avian species (e.g., pigeons, chickens, ducks, gulls, and corvids) causes occasional encephalitis and death or long-term virus persistence (7,10,17,18). Chick embryos may be killed by the virus (8). West Nile Virus and Fever in Europe In Europe, the presence of West Nile virus was indicated in 1958, when two Albanians had specific West Nile virus antibodies (31). The first European isolations of the virus were recorded in 1963 from patients and mosquitoes in the Rhone Delta (32) and from patients and Hyalomma marginatum ticks in the Volga Delta The Volga Delta is the largest inland river delta in Europe, and occurs where Europe's largest river system, the Volga River, drains into the Caspian Sea in Russia's Astrakhan Oblast, north-east of the republic of Kalmykia. (33,34). West Nile virus was subsequently isolated in Portugal (35), Slovakia (36), Moldavia (37), Ukraine (38), Hungary (39), Romania (2), Czechland (40), and Italy (V. Deubel, G. Ferrari, pers. comm.). The incidence of West Nile fever in Europe is largely unknown. In the 1960s, cases were observed in southern France Southern France (or the South of France), colloquially known as Le Midi, is a loosely defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Gironde, Spain, the Mediterranean Sea, Italy, and Switzerland south of the (25), southern Russia (41), Spain (26), southwestern Romania (42), in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s in Belarus (43), western Ukraine Western Ukraine may refer to:
Table 2. West Nile Virus in Europe, 1960-1998
Country Year Species infected
Portugal, southern 1967-1970 Cattle, sheep
Horses
Humans
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Wild birds
Spain, northern 1979 Rodents
Northwestern 1960s Humans
Donana National Park Humans
Ebro Delta 1979 Epidemic of influenza-like
illness
France, southern 1962 Humans, 10 severe cases (2
isolates)
Horses, 50 encephalomyelitis
cases (1 isolate)
Camargue 1962-1965 Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Wild birds
1975-1980 Humans
Horses
Corsica 1965 Humans
Italy, Tuscany 1998 Horses, 14 cases, 2 fatal
(1 isolate)
Northeastern 1967-1969 Migrating birds
Humans
Northwestern Humans
Central Humans
Domestic mammals
Rodents
Chickens
Southern Humans
Goats
1981 Rodents
Former Yugoslavia
Serbia Humans
Croatia Humans
Montenegro Humans
Bosnia, Kosovo Humans
Albania 1958 Humans
Domestic animals
Greece 1970-1978 Humans
Domestic animals
Rabbits
Birds
Bulgaria 1960-1970 Humans
Eastern Wetland birds
Domestic animals
1978 Mosquitoes (virus detected)
Romania
Bucharest, SE lowlands 1996 Humans, 453 clin. cases, 9%
fatality rate (1 isolate)
1997 Human, 14 cases, 2 fatal
Domestic & wild mammals
Dogs
Wild birds
1966-70 Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Banat (SW) Humans (cases)
Southern 1980-1995 Humans
Hungary 1970s Rodents (2 isolates)
Cattle
Humans
Slovakia 1972 Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
1970-1973 Migrating birds (4 isolates)
Game animals
Cattle, dogs
Sheep
Pigeons
Humans
Austria 1964-1977 Wetland passerines
Reptiles
Wild mammals
Domestic animals
Humans
Czechland 1978 Domestic animals
Southern Bohemia 1978 Hares
Southern Moravia 1980s Game animals
1985 Wetland birds
1990 Cormorants
1997 Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Humans (5 cases)
Poland near Warsaw 1996 Sparrows
Belarus 1977 Humans (cases in Brest area)
1972-1973 Wild birds
Ukraine
Southern, western Birds (7 isolates),
mosquitoes (3 isolates)
Southern 1970s Human cases (4 isolates)
Western 1985 Humans 38 cases,
encephalitis in 16
Moldavia 1970s Ticks, mosquitoes (several
isolates)
Humans
Russia,
Volga Delta 1963-1968 Humans (>10 cases, 3
isolates)
Ticks (4 isolates)
Water birds (2 isolates)
Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Country Species infected HI(a) (%)
Portugal, southern Cattle, sheep 15
Horses 29
Humans 3
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Wild birds 5
Spain, northern Rodents 3
Northwestern Humans 17
Donana National Park Humans +
Ebro Delta Epidemic of influenza-like 8-30
illness
France, southern Humans, 10 severe cases (2 19
isolates)
Horses, 50 encephalomyelitis 9
cases (1 isolate)
Camargue Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Wild birds 6
Humans 5
Horses 2
Corsica Humans 30
Italy, Tuscany Horses, 14 cases, 2 fatal
(1 isolate)
Northeastern Migrating birds 10
Humans 5
Northwestern Humans 23
Central Humans 2-8
Domestic mammals 8
Rodents 8
Chickens 20
Southern Humans 2-5
Goats 2-13
Rodents 1
Former Yugoslavia
Serbia Humans 1-8
Croatia Humans 1-3
Montenegro Humans 1
Bosnia, Kosovo Humans 1
Albania Humans
Domestic animals
Greece Humans 1-27
Domestic animals 7
Rabbits 4
Birds 22
Bulgaria Humans 3
Eastern Wetland birds 2
Domestic animals 1
Mosquitoes (virus detected)
Romania
Bucharest, SE lowlands Humans, 453 clin. cases, 9% 17
fatality rate (1 isolate)
Human, 14 cases, 2 fatal
Domestic & wild mammals 2-23
Dogs 19-45
Wild birds 22
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Banat (SW) Humans (cases) 17
Southern Humans 2-12
Hungary Rodents (2 isolates)
Cattle 4-9
Humans 4-6
Slovakia Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Migrating birds (4 isolates)
Game animals
Cattle, dogs 8
Sheep 1
Pigeons 5
Humans 1-4
Austria Wetland passerines 1-3
Reptiles
Wild mammals
Domestic animals 7-33
Humans 1-6
Czechland Domestic animals 2
Southern Bohemia Hares 5
Southern Moravia Game animals 8
Wetland birds 4-10
Cormorants 10
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Humans (5 cases)
Poland near Warsaw Sparrows 3-12
Belarus Humans (cases in Brest area) 1
Wild birds 3
Ukraine
Southern, western Birds (7 isolates),
mosquitoes (3 isolates)
Southern Human cases (4 isolates)
Western Humans 38 cases,
encephalitis in 16
Moldavia Ticks, mosquitoes (several
isolates)
Humans 3
Russia,
Volga Delta Humans (>10 cases, 3 7-31
isolates)
Ticks (4 isolates)
Water birds (2 isolates) 4-59
Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Neutra-
Country Species infected lization
(%)
Portugal, southern Cattle, sheep
Horses
Humans
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Wild birds
Spain, northern Rodents
Northwestern Humans 17
Donana National Park Humans
Ebro Delta Epidemic of influenza-like
illness
France, southern Humans, 10 severe cases (2
isolates)
Horses, 50 encephalomyelitis 30
cases (1 isolate)
Camargue Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Wild birds
Humans
Horses
Corsica Humans 55
Italy, Tuscany Horses, 14 cases, 2 fatal 40
(1 isolate)
Northeastern Migrating birds
Humans
Northwestern Humans
Central Humans
Domestic mammals
Rodents
Chickens
Southern Humans
Goats
Rodents
Former Yugoslavia
Serbia Humans
Croatia Humans
Montenegro Humans
Bosnia, Kosovo Humans
Albania Humans 2
Domestic animals
Greece Humans 1
Domestic animals
Rabbits
Birds
Bulgaria Humans
Eastern Wetland birds 10
Domestic animals
Mosquitoes (virus detected)
Romania
Bucharest, SE lowlands Humans, 453 clin. cases, 9%
fatality rate (1 isolate)
Human, 14 cases, 2 fatal
Domestic & wild mammals
Dogs
Wild birds
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Banat (SW) Humans (cases)
Southern Humans
Hungary Rodents (2 isolates)
Cattle
Humans
Slovakia Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Migrating birds (4 isolates) 1-13
Game animals 1-8
Cattle, dogs
Sheep
Pigeons
Humans
Austria Wetland passerines
Reptiles
Wild mammals
Domestic animals
Humans
Czechland Domestic animals
Southern Bohemia Hares
Southern Moravia Game animals
Wetland birds
Cormorants
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Humans (5 cases) 2
Poland near Warsaw Sparrows
Belarus Humans (cases in Brest area)
Wild birds
Ukraine
Southern, western Birds (7 isolates),
mosquitoes (3 isolates)
Southern Human cases (4 isolates)
Western Humans 38 cases,
encephalitis in 16
Moldavia Ticks, mosquitoes (several
isolates)
Humans
Russia,
Volga Delta Humans (>10 cases, 3
isolates)
Ticks (4 isolates)
Water birds (2 isolates) 2-11
Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Country Species infected Ref.
Portugal, southern Cattle, sheep 26, 35
Horses
Humans
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Wild birds
Spain, northern Rodents
Northwestern Humans 26
Donana National Park Humans
Ebro Delta Epidemic of influenza-like
illness
France, southern Humans, 10 severe cases (2 25,32,46
isolates)
Horses, 50 encephalomyelitis
cases (1 isolate)
Camargue Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
Wild birds
Humans
Horses
Corsica Humans
Italy, Tuscany Horses, 14 cases, 2 fatal 47
(1 isolate)
Northeastern Migrating birds
Humans (b)
Northwestern Humans
Central Humans
Domestic mammals
Rodents
Chickens
Southern Humans
Goats
Rodents
Former Yugoslavia
Serbia Humans 48
Croatia Humans
Montenegro Humans
Bosnia, Kosovo Humans
Albania Humans 31,49
Domestic animals
Greece Humans 50.51
Domestic animals
Rabbits
Birds
Bulgaria Humans 52,53
Eastern Wetland birds
Domestic animals
Mosquitoes (virus detected)
Romania 1-3,42
54,55
Bucharest, SE lowlands Humans, 453 clin. cases, 9%
fatality rate (1 isolate)
Human, 14 cases, 2 fatal
Domestic & wild mammals (c)
Dogs
Wild birds
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Banat (SW) Humans (cases)
Southern Humans
Hungary Rodents (2 isolates) 39,56
Cattle
Humans
Slovakia Mosquitoes (1 isolate) 16, 36,
57-60
Migrating birds (4 isolates)
Game animals
Cattle, dogs
Sheep
Pigeons
Humans
Austria Wetland passerines 61,62
Reptiles
Wild mammals
Domestic animals
Humans
Czechland Domestic animals 40,45,
63-67
Southern Bohemia Hares
Southern Moravia Game animals
Wetland birds
Cormorants
Mosquitoes (1 isolate)
Humans (5 cases)
Poland near Warsaw Sparrows 68
Belarus Humans (cases in Brest area) 43
Wild birds
Ukraine 34,44,69
Southern, western Birds (7 isolates),
mosquitoes (3 isolates)
Southern Human cases (4 isolates)
Western Humans 38 cases,
encephalitis in 16
Moldavia Ticks, mosquitoes (several 37, 70
isolates)
Humans
Russia, 33,344,155
Volga Delta Humans (>10 cases, 3
isolates)
Ticks (4 isolates)
Water birds (2 isolates)
Mosquitoes (2 isolates)
(a) Hemagglutination hemagglutination /he·mag·glu·ti·na·tion/ (he?mah-gloo-ti-na´shun) agglutination of erythrocytes. he·mag·glu·ti·na·tion n. inhibition. (b) Q. Ferrari, R. Lelli, pets. comm. (c) C. Ceianu, pers. comm. The Future West Nile virus can cause sporadic human cases, clusters, or outbreaks of West Nile fever, even in temperate Europe. Environmental factors, including human activities that enhance vector population densities (irrigation, heavy rains followed by floods, higher than usual temperatures, and formation of ecologic niches enabling the mass breeding of mosquitoes) allow the reemergence of this mosquito-borne disease. For instance, global warming global warming, the gradual increase of the temperature of the earth's lower atmosphere as a result of the increase in greenhouse gases since the Industrial Revolution. scenarios hypothesize hy·poth·e·size v. hy·poth·e·sized, hy·poth·e·siz·ing, hy·poth·e·siz·es v.tr. To assert as a hypothesis. v.intr. To form a hypothesis. warmer, more humid weather that may produce an increase in the distribution and abundance of mosquito vectors (71). Surveillance for West Nile fever (monitoring population densities and infection rates of principal vectors, serosurveys on vertebrates and exposed human groups, and routine diagnosis of human infections) should therefore be carried out in affected areas. The mechanism of West Nile virus persistence in disease-endemic foci of temperate Europe presents a challenge for further research. General hypotheses of how an arbovirus arbovirus Any of a large group of viruses that develop in arthropods (chiefly mosquitoes and ticks). The name derives from “arthropod-borne virus.” The spheroidal virus particle is encased in a fatty membrane and contains RNA; it causes no apparent harm to the could overwinter o·ver·win·ter intr.v. o·ver·win·tered, o·ver·win·ter·ing, o·ver·win·ters 1. To remain alive through the winter: sheep that overwintered on the steppe. 2. under adverse climatic conditions have already been postulated (72). The virus could persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move" continue hibernating female Culex spp.; transovarially infected Culex spp. progeny; or chronically infected vertebrate hosts, perhaps birds or frogs. Alternatively, the virus may be reintroduced by chronically infected migratory birds from tropical or subtropical sub·trop·i·cal adj. Of, relating to, or being the geographic areas adjacent to the Tropics. subtropical Adjective of the region lying between the tropics and temperate lands foci at irregular intervals. These issues have to be addressed, because present data substantiate all particular mechanisms and their combinations. For instance, the hibernating vector idea has been supported by a few field and experimental data on female Cx. univittatus (7,73). On the other hand, if the reintroduction scheme is correct, a greatly increased activity of West Nile virus in Africa should be followed by an epidemic occurrence of West Nile fever in Europe in the next few years. References (1.) Le Guenno B, Bougermouh A, Azzam T, Bouakaz R. West Nile: A deadly virus? Lancet 1996;348:1315. (2.) Tsai TF, Popovici F, Cernescu C, Campbell GL, Nedelcu NI. West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania. Lancet 1998;352:767-71. (3.) Savage HM, Ceianu C, Nicolescu G, Karabatsos N, Lanciotti R, Vladimirescu A, et al. Entomologic en·to·mol·o·gy n. The scientific study of insects. en  to·mo·log and avian investigations of an
epidemic of West Nile fever in Romania, 1996, with serologic se·rol·o·gy n. pl. se·rol·o·gies 1. The science that deals with the properties and reactions of serums, especially blood serum. 2. and molecular characterization of a virus isolate from mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. In press 1999. (4.) Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, et al. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal polyclonal /poly·clo·nal/ (-klon´'l) 1. derived from different cells. 2. pertaining to several clones. polyclonal derived from different cells; pertaining to several clones. antisera. J Gen Virol 1989;70:37-43. (5.) Smithburn KC, Hughes TP, Burke AW, Paul JH. A neurotropic neurotropic pertaining to or emanating from neurotrophy, e.g. neurotropic osteopathy. virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1940;20:471-92. (6.) Melnick JL, Paul JR, Riordan JT, Barnett VHH VHH Volatile Halogenated Hydrocarbons VHH Visible Human Viewer (National Library of Medicine) , Goldblum N, Zabin E. Isolation from human sera in Egypt of a virus apparently identical to West Nile virus. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1951;77:661-5. (7.) Taylor RM, Work TH, Hurlbut HS, Rizk F. A study of the ecology of West Nile virus in Egypt. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1956;5:579-620. (8.) Karabatsos N, editor. International catalogue of arboviruses arboviruses (ar´bōvī´r  sz),n. , including certain other viruses of vertebrates. 3rd ed., and Supplements 1986-98. San Antonio: American Society of Tropical Medicine tropical medicine, study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of certain diseases prevalent in the tropics. The warmth and humidity of the tropics and the often unsanitary conditions under which so many people in those areas live contribute to the development and and Hygiene; 1985. (9.) Peiris JSM JSM Journal of Sexual Medicine JSM Just Shoot Me (sitcom) JSM Journal of Sport Management JSM Journal of Software Maintenance JSM Jabber Session Manager JSM John Sidney McCain JSM JEOL Scanning Microscope , Amerasinghe FP. West Nile fever. In: Beran GW, Steele JH, editors. Handbook of zoonoses Zoonoses Infections of humans caused by the transmission of disease agents that naturally live in animals. People become infected when they unwittingly intrude into the life cycle of the disease agent and become unnatural hosts. . Section B: Viral. 2nd ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Checking) An error checking technique used to ensure the accuracy of transmitting digital data. The transmitted messages are divided into predetermined lengths which, used as dividends, are divided by a fixed divisor. Press; 1994. p. 139-48. (10.) Hubalek Z, Halouzka J. Arthropod-borne viruses of vertebrates in Europe. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Brno 1996;30(no.4-5):1-95. (11.) Zanotto PM de A, Gould EA, Gao GF, Harvey PH, Holmes EC. Population dynamics of flaviviruses revealed by molecular phylogenies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996;93:548-53. (12.) Berthet FX, Zeller HG, Drouet MT, Rauzier J, Digoutte JP, Deubel V. Extensive nucleotide changes and deletions within the envelope glycoprotein glycoprotein (glī'kōprō`tēn), organic compound composed of both a protein and a carbohydrate joined together in covalent chemical linkage. gene of Euro-African West Nile viruses. J Gen Virol 1997;78:2293-7. (13.) Hurlbut HS. West Nile virus infection in arthropods. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1956;5:76-85. (14.) Nir Y, Goldwasser
Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig R, Lasowski Y, Avivi A. Isolation of arboviruses from wild birds in Israel. Am J Epidemiol 1967;86:372-8. (15.) Watson GE, Shope RE, Kaiser MN. An ectoparasite ec·to·par·a·site n. A parasite that lives on the surface or exterior of the host organism, such as an ectophyte or an ectozoon. ec and virus survey of migratory birds in the eastern Mediterranean. In: Cherepanov IA, editor. Transcontinental connections of migratory birds and their role in the distribution of arboviruses. Novosibirsk: Nauka; 1972 p. 176-80. (16.) Ernek E, Kozuch O, Nosek J, Teplan J, Folk C. Arboviruses in birds captured in Slovakia. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology (Prague) 1977;21:353-9. (17.) Work TH, Hurlbut HS, Taylor RM. Indigenous wild birds of the Nile Delta as potential West Nile virus circulating reservoirs. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1955;4:872-8. (18.) Semenov BF, Chunikhin SP, Karmysheva VY, Yakovleva NI. Studies of chronic arbovirus infections in birds. 1. Experiments with West Nile, Sindbis, Bhanja and SFS (1) (Self-certifying File System) A global, network file system sponsored by DARPA that runs under Unix. Providing strong security in an untrusted environment, it enables any client to access any server that supports it. viruses (in Russian). Vestnik Akademii Medicinskikh Nauk SSSR SSSR Society for the Scientific Study of Religion SSSR Society for the Scientific Study of Reading SSSR Smallest Set of Smallest Rings (chemistry) SSSR Sojus Sowjetskich Sozialistitscheskich Respublik (USSR; Russian) (Moskva) 1973;2:79-83. (19.) Hannoun C, Corniou B, Mouchet J. Role of migrating birds in arbovirus transfer between Africa and Europe. In: Cherepanov AI, editor. Transcontinental connections of migratory birds and their role in the distribution of arboviruses. Novosibirsk: Nauka; 1972; p. 167-72. (20.) Rodhain F, Petter JJ, Albignac R, Coulanges P, Hannoun C. Arboviruses and lemurs in Madagascar: experimental infection of Lemur fulvus with yellow fever yellow fever, acute infectious disease endemic in tropical Africa and many areas of South America. Epidemics have extended into subtropical and temperate regions during warm seasons. and West Nile viruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1985;34:816. (21.) Kostyukov MA, Alekseev AN, Bulychev VP, Gordeeva ZE. Experimental infection of Culex pipiens mosquitoes with West Nile virus by feeding on infected Rana ridibunda frogs and its subsequent transmission (in Russian). Med Parazitol (Mosk) 1986;6:76-8. (22.) Southam CM, Moore AE. Induced virus infections in man by the Egypt isolates of West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1954;3:19-50. (23.) McIntosh BM, Jupp PG, Dos Santos I, Meenehan GM. Epidemics of West Nile and Sindbis viruses in South Africa with Culex (Culex) univittatus Theobald as vector. South African Journal of Science 1976;72:295-300. (24.) Schmidt JR, E1 Mansoury HK. Natural and experimental infection of Egyptian equines with West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1963;57:415-27. (25.) Hannoun C, Panthier R, Corniou B. Epidemiology of West Nile infections in the South of France South of France south n the South of France → le Sud de la France, le Midi . In: Bardo Bardo blind antiquarian wrapped up in his scholarly annotations of the classics. [Br. Lit.: George Eliot Romola] See : Scholarliness V, editor. Arboviruses of the California complex and the Bunyamwera group. Bratislava: Publ House SAS (1) (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, www.sas.com) A software company that specializes in data warehousing and decision support software based on the SAS System. Founded in 1976, SAS is one of the world's largest privately held software companies. See SAS System. ; 1969. p. 379-87. (26.) Filipe AR, De Andrade HR. Arboviruses in the Iberian Peninsula. Acta Virol 1990;34:582-91. (27.) Abdelhaq AT. West Nile fever in horses in Morocco. Bulletin de l'Office International des Epizooties 1996;108:867-9. (28.) Barnard BJH BJH Barclay James Harvest (English pop group) BJH Bethel Junior High BJH Bopp-Jancso-Heinzinger (potential function) BJH Brookhurst Junior High (Anaheim, CA) , Voges SF. Flaviviruses in South Africa: pathogenicity for sheep. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 1986;53:235-8. (29.) Ben-Nathan D, Lustig S, Feuerstein G. The influence of cold or isolation stress on neuroinvasiveness and virulence of an attenuated variant of West Nile virus. Arch Virol 1989; 109:1-10. (30.) Pogodina VV, Frolova MP, Malenko GV, Fokina GI, Koreshkova GV, Kiseleva LL, et al. Study on West Nile virus persistence in monkeys. Arch Virol 1983 ;75:71-86. (31.) Bardo V, Adamcova J, Dedei S, Gjini N, Rosick B, imkova A. Neutralizing antibodies against some neurotropic viruses determined in human sera in Albania. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology (Prague) 1959;3:277-82. (32.) Hannoun C, Panthier R, Mouchet J, Eouzan JP. Isolement en France du virus West Nile a partir de malades et du vecteur Culex molestus Ficalbi. Compte Rendu de l'Acad6mie des Sciences 1964;D259:4170-2. (33.) Chumakov MP, Belyaeva AP, Butenko AM. Isolation and study of an original virus from Hyalomma plumbeum plumbeum ticks and from the blood of a febrile patient in the Astrakhan Astrakhan, city, Russia Astrakhan (ăs`trəkăn, Rus. ä`strəkhənyə), city (1990 pop. 521,000), capital of Astrakhan region, SE European Russia. region (in Russian). Materialy XI Nauchnoi Sessii Instituta Poliomielita i Virusnykh Encefalitov (Moskva) 1964:5-7. (34.) Butenko AM, Chumakov MP, Stolbov DN. Serological serological pertaining to or emanating from serology. serological test one involving examination of blood serum usually for antibody. and virological virological pertaining to viruses. examinations in a natural focus of West Nile fever in the Astrakhan region (in Russian). Voprosy Medicinskoi Virusologii 1967;1:208-11. (35.) Filipe AR. Isolation in Portugal of West Nile virus from Anopheles Anopheles: see mosquito. maculipennis mosquitoes. Acta Virol 1972;16:361. (36.) Labuda M, Kozuch O, Gre ikova M. Isolation of West Nile virus from Aedes cantans mosquitoes in west Slovakia. Acta Virol 1974;18:429-33. (37.) Chumakov MP, Bashkirtsev VN, Golger EI, Dzagurova TK, Zavodova TI, Konovalov YN, et al. Isolation and identification of Crimean hemorrhagic fever hemorrhagic fever (hĕm'ərăj`ĭk), any of a group of viral diseases characterized by sudden onset, muscle and joint pain, fever, bleeding, and shock from loss of blood. and West Nile fever viruses from ticks collected in Moldavia (in Russian). Medicinskaya Virusologia 1974;22:45-9. (38.) Vinograd IA, Obukhova VR. Isolation of arboviruses from birds in western Ukraine (in Russian). Sbornik Trudov Instituta Virusologii (Moskva) 1975;3:84-7. (39.) Molnar E, Gulyas MS, Kubinyi L, Nosek J, Kozuch O, Ernek E, et al. Studies on the occurrence of tick-borne encephalitis in Hungary. Acta Veterinaria Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 1976;26:419-38. (40.) Hubalek Z, Halouzka J, Juricova Z, ebesta O. First isolation of mosquito-borne West Nile virus in the Czech Republic. Acta Virol 1998;42:119-20. (41.) Butenko AM, Chumakov MP, Bashkirtsev VN, Tkachenko EA, Rubin SG, Stolbov DN. New investigations of West Nile virus infections in the USSR--Astrakhan region (in Russian). Materialy XV Nauchnoi Sessii Instituta Poliomielita i Virusnykh Encefalitov (Moskva) 1968;3:175-6. (42.) Topciu V, Rosiu N, Arcan P. Contribution to the study of arboviruses in Banat. Revue Roumaine d'Inframicrobiologie 1971;8:101-6. (43.) Voinov IN, Rytik PG, Grigoriev AI. Arbovirus infections in Belarus (in Russian). In: Drozdov SG, editor. Virusy i virusnyje infektsii. Moskva: Inst Poliomiel Virus Enc; 1981. p. 86-7. (44.) Buletsa BA, Turak JA., Korol MJ, Ignatovich II, Vitvitskyi AA. Neurological manifestations of West Nile fever in the Transcarpathian region, Ukrainian SSR (in Russian). Zhurnal Nevrologii Psikhiatrii 1989;89:29-30. (45.) Hubalek Z, Halouzka J, Juricova Z. West Nile fever in Czechland. Emerg InFect Dis 1999;5:594-5. (46.) Rollin PE, Rollin D, Martin P, Baylet R, Rodhain F, Hannoun C. Resultats d'enquetes seroepidemiologiques recentes sur les arboviroses en Camargue: populations humaines, equines, bovines et aviaires. M6decine et Maladies Infectieuses 1982; 12:77-80. (47.) Verani P, Balducci M, Lopes MC. Arboviruses in Italy. In: Kurstak E, editor. Arctic and tropical arboviruses. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Academic Press; 1979. p. 101-21. (48.) Vesenjak-Hirjan J, Punda-Poli V, Dobec M. Geographical distribution of arboviruses in Yugoslavia. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology (Prague) 1991;35:129-40. (49.) Eltari E, Gina A, Bitri T, Sharofi F. Some data on arboviruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis, in Albania. Giornale de Malattie Infettive e Parassitaire 1993;45:404-11. (50.) Koptopoulos G, Papadopoulos O. A serological survey for tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile viruses in Greece. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie 1980;Suppl 9:185-8. (51.) Antoniadis A, Alexiou-Daniel S, Malissiovas N, Doutsos J, Polyzoni T, LeDuc JW, et al. Seroepidemiological survey for antibodies to arboviruses in Greece. Arch Virol 1990;Suppl 1:277-85. (52.) Rusakiev M. Studies on the distribution of arboviruses transmitted by mosquitoes in Bulgaria. In: Bardo V, editor. Arboviruses of the California complex and the Bunyamwera group. Bratislava: Publ House SAS; 1969. p. 389-92. (53.) Katsarov G, Vasilenko S, Vargin V, Butenko S, Tkachenko E. Serological studies on the distribution of some arboviruses in Bulgaria. Problems of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases 1980;8:32-5. (54.) Draganescu N, Gheorghiu V. On the presence of group B arbovirus infections in Romania. Investigations on the incidence of West Nile antibodies in humans and certain domestic animals. Revue Roumaine d'Inframicrobiologie 1968;5:255-8. (55.) Antipa C, Girjabu E, Iftimovici R, Draganescu N. Serological investigations concerning the presence of antibodies to arboviruses in wild birds. Revue Roumaine de Medicine - Virologie 1984;35:5-9. (56.) Molnar E, Gre ikova M, Kubaszova T, Kubinyi L, Szabo JB. Arboviruses in Hungary. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology (Prague) 1973;17:1-10. (57.) Kozuch O, Nosek J, Labuda M. Arboviruses occurring in western Slovakia and their hosts. In: Labuda M, Calisher CH, editors. New aspects in ecology of arboviruses. Bratislava: Inst Virol SAS; 1980. p. 323-33. (58.) Kozuch O, Nosek J, Greikova M, Ernek E. Surveillance on mosquito-borne natural focus in Zahorska lowland. In: Sixl W, Troger H, editors. Naturherde von Infektionskrankheiten in Zentraleuropa. Graz: Hyg Inst Univ; 1976. p. 115-8. (59.) Sekeyova M, Gre ikova M, Kozuch O. Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies to some arboviruses in sera of pigeons trapped in Bratislava. In: Sixl W, Troger H, editors. Naturherde von Infektionskrankheiten in Zentraleuropa. Graz: Hyg Inst Univ; 1976. p. 187-9. (60.) Gre ikova M, Sekeyova M. Haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies against arboviruses in the population of Slovakia. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology (Prague) 1967;11:278-85. (61.) Aspock H, Kunz C, Picher O, Bock Noun 1. bock - a very strong lager traditionally brewed in the fall and aged through the winter for consumption in the spring bock beer lager beer, lager - a general term for beer made with bottom fermenting yeast (usually by decoction mashing); originally F. Virologische und serologische Untersuchungen fiber die Rolle von Vogeln als Wirte von Arboviren in Osterreich. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie 1973;A224:156-67. (62.) Gre ikova M, Thiel W, Batikova M, Stunzner D, Sekeyova M, Sixl W. Haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies against arboviruses in human sera from different regions in Steiermark (Austria). Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie 1973;224:298-302. (63.) Gre ikova M, Sekeyova M, Vota J, Hanak P. Haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies to some arboviruses in human and animal sera from Ceske Budejovice. In: Sixl W, editor. Naturherde von Infektionskrankheiten in Zentraleuropa. Graz-Seggau: Hyg Inst Univ; 1979. p. 25-9. (64.) Juricova Z. Antibodies to arboviruses in game animals in Moravia, Czechland (in Czech). Veterinarni Medicina (Praha) 1992;37:633-6. (65.) Juricova Z, Hubalek Z, Halouzka J, Machacek P. Virological examination of cormorants for arboviruses (in Czech). Veterini Medicina (Praha) 1993;38:375-9. (66.) Hubalek Z, Jur icova Z, Halouzka J, Pellantova J, Hudec K. Arboviruses associated with birds in southern Moravia, Czechoslovakia. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Brno 1989;23(7):1-50. (67.) Juricova Z, Halouzka J. Serological examination of domestic ducks in southern Moravia for antibodies against arboviruses of the groups A, B, California and Bunyamwera (in Czech). Biologia (Bratisl) 1993;48:481-4. (68.) Juricova Z, Pinowski J, Literak I, Hahm KH, Romanowski J. Antibodies to Alphavirus, Flavivirus, and Bunyavirus arboviruses in house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and tree sparrows (P. montanus) in Poland. Avian Dis 1998;42:182-5. (69.) Vinograd IA, Beletskaya GV, Chumachenko SS, Omelchenko GA, Lozinski IN, Yartys OS, et al. Ecological aspects of arbovirus studies in the Ukrainian SSR (in Russian). In: Lvov DK, Gaidamovich SY, editors. Ecology of viruses and diagnostics of arbovirus infections. Moscow: Acad Med Sci USSR USSR: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. ; 1989. p. 21-7. (70.) Chumakov MP, Spasskiy AA, Uspenskaya IG, Tikhon EI, Zaitsev NA, Konovalov YN, et al. Virological, serological, zoological, and ecological investigations of natural foci of arbovirus infections in Moldavian SSR (in Russian). Abstr Conf "Viruses and virus infections of humans." Moskva 1981, p. 101. (71.) Reeves WC, Hardy JL, Reisen WK, Milby MM. Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses. J Med Entomol 1994;310:323-32. (72.) Reeves WC. Overwintering o·ver·win·ter·ing n. The persistence of an infectious agent in its vector for an extended period, as in the cooler winter months, during which the vector has no opportunity to be reinfected or to infect another host. of arboviruses. Prog Med Virol 1974; 17:193-220. (73.) Cornel cornel: see dogwood. AJ, Jupp PG, Blackburn NK. Effect of environmental temperature on the vector competence of Culex univittatus (Diptera, Culicidae) for West Nile virus. J Med Entomol 1993;30:449-56. Zdenek Hubalek and Jiri Halouzka are scientists at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Czech: Akademie věd České republiky, abbr. AV ČR . They are interested in the ecology of arthropodborne human pathogenic viruses and bacteria. Address for correspondence: Z. Hubalek, Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences, Klasterni 2, CZ-69142 Valtice, Czech Republic; fax: 420-627-352-387; e-mail: zhubalek@brno.cas.cz. |
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