Web-based peer supervision, collective self-esteem, and case conceptualization ability in school counselor trainees.This study investigated the efficacy of a 12-week, Web-based peer supervision group in increasing school counselor A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in schools, and have historically been referred to as "guidance counselors" or "educational counselors," although "Professional School Counselor" is now the preferred term. trainees' collective self-esteem (i.e., positive feelings in identifying as a school counselor) and written case conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: ability. Results suggested that school counselor trainees who participated in a Web-based peer supervision group reported significantly higher collective self-esteem and case conceptualization skills than did their counterparts who did not participate in Web-based peer supervision. Implications of the findings for counselors in training and practicing school counselors are presented. ********** The Internet is being used increasingly in academic training and clinical supervision settings (Janoff & Schoenhohz-Read, 1999; Kanz, 2001). In particular, the utilization of Web-based peer supervision interventions in school counselor training settings has received important attention in the past decade (Rust, 1995). The use of a peer group as a supervision opportunity has been reported to be helpful to many school counselor trainees and professionals (Agnew, Vaught, Getz, & Fortune, 2000; Crutchfield & Borders, 1997; Gainor & Constantine, 2002). However, few investigations have documented its effectiveness (Starling starling, any of a group of originally Old World birds that have become distributed worldwide. Starlings were brought to New York in 1890; since then the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has spread throughout North America. & Baker, 2000). This study examined the extent to which school counselor trainees benefited from a peer group supervision experience that took place over the Internet. Specifically, we explored the degree to which school counselor trainees would report increases in their collective self-esteem (i.e., the extent to which they felt positively about being a school counselor) and their case conceptualization ability (i.e., the degree to which they were able to formulate a theoretical conceptualization of a student's mental health concerns) as a result of their participation in a Web-based peer supervision group. We believe this type of peer supervision experience could represent a valuable and supplementary opportunity for school counselor trainees to receive support and feedback related to their development as emerging professionals. In peer supervision, different perspectives on how to handle a clinical situation are discussed and vicarious vicarious /vi·car·i·ous/ (vi-kar´e-us) 1. acting in the place of another or of something else. 2. occurring at an abnormal site. vi·car·i·ous adj. 1. learning can occur (Starling & Baker, 2000). A peer supervision group also can serve as a forum for obtaining collegial col·le·gi·al adj. 1. a. Characterized by or having power and authority vested equally among colleagues: "He . . . support and encouragement and for addressing mutual areas of professional development (Bradley & Kottler, 2001; Roberts & Borders, 1994; Wilbur, Roberts-Wilbur, Hart, Morris, & Betz, 1994). Moreover, in peer supervision models, the traditional hierarchical and evaluative relationship between supervisor and student is de-emphasized, and it is assumed that all students have nearly equivalent amounts of experience (Benshoff & Paisley Paisley (pāz`lē), town (1991 pop. 84,330), Renfrewshire, W Scotland, on the White Cart Water, a stream. It has a thriving textile industry and is an extremely large producer of thread. , 1996; Powell, 1996). Receiving peer group supervision in a Web-based format, in particular, could have several important advantages for school counselor trainees. For instance, one potential benefit is that school counselor trainees can receive and offer a spectrum of feedback from peers related to working with challenging students and dealing with other professional and ethical issues (Gilbride & Stensrud, 1999). Moreover, online peer forums may serve as valuable means for providing supportive settings wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. members are able to convey concerns, challenges, and successes (Gainor & Constantine, 2002; Kanz, 2001; Rust, 1995). In fact, many qualities of in-person peer supervision groups also are found among online peer communities (McKenna & Bargh, 1998, 1999). Web-based peer supervision groups also can provide milieus that promote school counselor trainees' professional identity development by focusing on shared professional issues and concerns (Agnew et al., 2000; Benshoff & Paisley, 1996; Crutchfield & Borders, 1997). Thus, school counselor trainees' collective self-esteem may be enhanced by their participation in such groups. Collective self-esteem refers to the extent to which individuals positively view their social group (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992). Little is known about school counselors' or school counselor trainees' positive feelings with regard to their professional roles. Although collective self-esteem has been studied primarily in ascribed social groups, such as race and gender (e.g., Constantine, Robinson, Wilton, & Caldwell, 2002; Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994), the present investigation examined collective self-esteem among school counselor trainees in the context of their participation in a Web-based peer supervision group. In Web-based peer supervision groups, peers also may "speak" the same language and have similar skill levels, which could increase their counseling self-efficacy (Borders, 1991). Because novice counselors may find it easier to understand each other's cognitive processes Cognitive processes Thought processes (i.e., reasoning, perception, judgment, memory). Mentioned in: Psychosocial Disorders than to understand a more seasoned colleague's cognitive process (Hillerbrand, 1989), a Web-based peer supervision group can be an excellent place to conceptualize con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: clinical cases (Gainor & Constantine, 2002). The aforementioned a·fore·men·tioned adj. Mentioned previously. n. The one or ones mentioned previously. aforementioned Adjective mentioned before Adj. 1. benefits, in turn, could lead to higher-functioning school counselor trainees who are able to be therapeutically flexible and competent with a wider range of students (Crutchfield & Borders, 1997). A salient aspect of school counselor trainees' therapeutic competence is their ability to formulate clinical conceptualizations related to students' mental health issues. Specifically, case conceptualization ability is generally composed of two distinct, but interrelated in·ter·re·late tr. & intr.v. in·ter·re·lat·ed, in·ter·re·lat·ing, in·ter·re·lates To place in or come into mutual relationship. in , dimensions. The first dimension is based on school counselor trainees' recognition of factors that may be contributing to the etiology etiology /eti·ol·o·gy/ (e?te-ol´ah-je) 1. the science dealing with causes of disease. 2. the cause of a disease. of students' problems. The second dimension is based on their thoughts about what might be an effective treatment focus or plan for addressing students' difficulties. These dimensions or conceptualizations become increasingly complex as school counselor trainees make associations between and among hypothesized etiologies of presenting concerns and, accordingly, integrate these data into treatment plans. School counselor trainees' ability to perceive and conceptualize treatment information in a complex and sophisticated manner might have important implications for their ability to work effectively with students. Hence, receiving additional supervision, particularly peer supervision in a Web-based format that focuses specifically on such conceptualizations, presumably pre·sum·a·ble adj. That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. would facilitate the development of these trainees' professional competence. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to design and implement a Web-based supervision group to investigate the following research question: To what degree would school counselor trainees report increases in their collective self-esteem and written case conceptualization ability based on their participation in a 12-week, Web-based peer supervision group? To evaluate the effects of this Web-based group, we utilized a comparative group of school counselor trainees who did not receive any type of peer group supervision intervention (i.e., neither Web-based nor in-person peer group supervision). We hypothesized that trainees in the Web-based peer supervision group would report higher levels of collective self-esteem and evidence greater case conceptualization ability following their participation in the Web-based peer supervision group than would trainees who did not receive such an intervention. METHOD Participants Forty-eight school counselor trainees who were matriculating in a master's degree master's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree. Noun 1. program located in the Eastern region of the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. volunteered to participate in the study. Twenty-four trainees were placed in the Web-based peer supervision group format, and the other 24 trainees were members of a comparison group (i.e., a group that did not receive Web-based peer supervision). Participants were assigned to the treatment conditions or groups based on convenience rather than random placement. The school counselor trainees in the Web-based peer supervision group consisted of 19 (79.2%) women and 5 (20.8%) men who ranged in age from 24 to 37 years (M = 28.50, SD = 3.84). The comparison group was made up of 18 (75.0%) women and 6 (25.0%) men who ranged in age from 23 to 40 years (M = 27.63, SD = 4.47). The racial and ethnic composition of the school counselor trainees in the Web-based supervision group was as follows: 15 (62.5%) White Americans The term white American (often used interchangeably with "Caucasian American"[2] and within the United States simply "white"[3]) is an umbrella term that refers to people of European, Middle Eastern, and North African descent residing in the United States. , 4 (16.7%) African Americans African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , 3 (12.5%) Asian Americans This page is a list of Asian Americans. Politics
n. 1. A temporary military fortification erected in the field. 2. Work done or firsthand observations made in the field as opposed to that done or observed in a controlled environment. 3. sites to fulfill ful·fill also ful·fil tr.v. ful·filled, ful·fill·ing, ful·fills also ful·fils 1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises. 2. their academic program requirements, and each of them received 1 hour of weekly on-site individual supervision in their placement settings. None of the trainees reported any previous counseling experience. Procedures Prior to the start of the study, the participants' approval and school counselor trainees' informed consent were obtained. The 24 school counselor trainees who volunteered to participate in the semester-long research project related to receiving peer group supervision on the Web were informed that they would be asked to take turns conceptualizing and discussing anonymous clinical cases related to their placement in fieldwork sites. They were told that they could respond with feedback and questions pertaining per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. to each other's conceptualizations of clinical cases, and that their peer supervision sessions would be monitored by a moderator moderator - A person, or small group of people, who manages a moderated mailing list or Usenet newsgroup. Moderators are responsible for determining which email submissions are passed on to the list or newsgroup. . All of these school counselor trainees reported owning a personal computer and familiarity with using a Web browser The program that serves as your front end to the Web on the Internet. In order to view a site, you type its address (URL) into the browser's Location field; for example, www.computerlanguage.com, and the home page of that site is downloaded to you. . The school counselor trainees who participated in the Web-based peer supervision format were divided into three groups consisting of 8 students in each. Each of the Web-based supervision peer groups met for 1 hour weekly for 12 weeks as an adjunct adjunct (aj´ungkt), n a drug or other substance that serves a supplemental purpose in therapy. adjunct to 1 hour of weekly individual supervision by certified See certification. school counselors in their fieldwork settings. School counselor trainees were given instructions on how to access a Web page that was developed for the purposes of the investigation, and they selected a unique user name and password allowing them access to a synchronous Refers to events that are synchronized, or coordinated, in time. For example, the interval between transmitting A and B is the same as between B and C, and completing the current operation before the next one is started are considered synchronous operations. Contrast with asynchronous. Internet relay chat See IRC. (chat, messaging) Internet Relay Chat - (IRC) /I-R-C/, occasionally /*rk/ A client-server chat system of large (often worldwide) networks. IRC is structured as networks of Internet servers, each accepting connections from client programs, one per user. room to conduct real-time dialogues. Ground rules addressing the maintenance of confidentiality and the use of appropriate language also were established and defined. A counseling instructor with extensive experience working in school settings moderated each of the Web-based supervision groups. This instructor also had received didactic di·dac·tic adj. Of or relating to medical teaching by lectures or textbooks as distinguished from clinical demonstration with patients. and applied supervision training in his graduate program. The role of the moderator was to facilitate discussion of clinical cases offered by the trainees, assist school counselor trainees with their case conceptualizations when necessary, and encourage supervisees' consultation with their clinical supervisors when ethical dilemmas An ethical dilemma is a situation that will often involve an apparent conflict between moral imperatives, in which to obey one would result in transgressing another. This is also called an ethical paradox and clinical emergencies arose in their fieldwork sites. Prior to the start of the investigation, the 24 school counselor trainees who volunteered to participate in the Web-based peer supervision format and the 24 school counselor trainees who made up the comparison group were asked to complete pretest pre·test n. 1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study. b. A test taken for practice. 2. instruments in person that included a brief demographic questionnaire, the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES CSES Center for Science in the Earth System CSES Center for the Study of Earth from Space CSES C-Bit Severely Errored Seconds CSES Consecutive Severely Errored Seconds CSES Computer Science & Engineering Society CSES Campus Safety Escort Service ; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992), and a case conceptualization ability exercise. These measures were administered by a research assistant who had no knowledge about the study's purposes or hypotheses. The posttest post·test n. A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. measures also were completed by all 48 of the trainees in person and included the same instruments used at pretest. Code numbers were used to match pretest and posttest data for the school counselor trainees. After the investigation was completed, all 48 school counselor trainees were debriefed by one of the researchers and were provided with an opportunity to ask questions or to learn additional information about the study. No monetary incentives were provided to the trainees for their participation. Instruments Demographic questionnaire. Participants were asked to indicate their sex, age, and race or ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , and whether they had had any previous counseling experience. Collective Self-Esteem Scale. The CSES (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) is a 16-item, 7-point (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) Likert-type instrument designed to measure self-esteem as it relates to belonging to specific social groups. The CSES consists of four subscales assessing four dimensions of collective self-esteem. The first subscale, private collective self-esteem, measures the extent to which individuals feel positively about their social groups. Public collective self-esteem, the second subscale, taps individuals' beliefs about the extent to which others feel positively about their social groups. The third subscale, membership collective self-esteem, assesses the extent to which individuals believe they are good members of their own social groups. Finally, the importance to identity collective self-esteem subscale measures the degree to which individuals believe their social groups are important parts of their self-concept. Higher scores are associated with higher levels of collective self-esteem. In our study, the CSES items were revised to refer specifically to respondents' social group membership as a school counselor. Such slight modifications have been used successfully by previous researchers (e.g., Constantine et al., 2002; Crocker et al., 1994). In validation studies, Luhtanen and Crocker (1992) reported adequate internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliabilities for the CSES subscales, ranging from .71 to .88, and a test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. of .68 for the total scale. In our study, we used the total scale score of this measure to assess school counselor trainees' overall collective self-esteem. A Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. of .82 was calculated
for this measure.Case conceptualization exercise. For the case conceptualization ability exercise, participants were asked to imagine that they were the school counselor for a student whom they were about to meet. They were provided with a vignette Vignette A symbol or pictorial representation of the corporation on a stock certificate. Usually a complicated and artistic design, it is meant to make the counterfeiting of stock certificates as difficult as possible. in which the student, who was described as a 12-year-old, academically gifted White female, was being referred to counseling because of recent academic failure in two of her classes, a recent onset of bouts Bouts is the name of
intr.v. im·pend·ed, im·pend·ing, im·pends 1. To be about to occur: Her retirement is impending. 2. divorce of her parents. Thus, there were several mental health issues that could be pertinent to the formulation of a treatment plan for the student. After reading the vignette at both pretest and posttest, the school counselor trainees were asked to write a conceptualization of at least three sentences describing what they believed to be the etiology of the student's difficulties, and to write a conceptualization of at least three sentences delineating what they believed to be effective treatment strategies or foci for addressing the student's difficulties. To assess case conceptualization ability, a coding system Noun 1. coding system - a system of signals used to represent letters or numbers in transmitting messages code - a coding system used for transmitting messages requiring brevity or secrecy was developed by which raters indicated the extent to which participants had integrated salient issues into the etiology and treatment conceptualizations of the student's presenting concerns. In this study, case conceptualization ability was measured by examining two interrelated cognitive processes. The first process, differentiation, is defined as school counselor trainees' ability to offer alternative interpretations of a student's presenting problems and the nature of the treatment that could be provided. The greater the number of options presented in relation to a student's problems, the greater the degree of differentiation. The second process, integration, is characterized char·ac·ter·ize tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es 1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless. 2. by school counselor trainees' ability to develop associations between and among differentiated interpretations. In previous studies, integrative complexity Integrative complexity is a research psychology measure designed to quantify the complexity of written texts based on dimensions of integration and differentiation. coding systems have been validated (e.g., Tetlock, 1986) and have been noted to have high interrater agreement (e.g., .87; Tetlock & Kim, 1987). Moreover, similar case conceptualization exercises have been used and validated with school counselor trainees (e.g., Gainor & Constantine, 2002). The two raters for the case conceptualization exercise were doctoral students in counselor education who were trained for 10 hours in the coding of the case conceptualization ability measure. They were unaware of the study's purposes and coded all of the open-ended etiology and treatment responses for case conceptualization ability. Case conceptualization scores ranged from 0 to 5 (0 = no differentiation, no integration; 3 = moderate differentiation, low integration; 5 = high differentiation, high integration). Final interrater agreements for the etiology and treatment ratings were .84 and .87, respectively. RESULTS Table 1 provides the pretest and posttest means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for the CSES and the case conceptualization etiology and treatment exercise for the combined Web-based peer supervision groups and the comparative group of school counselor trainees. Table 2 displays the intercorrelations among the study's variables. A t test revealed no statistically significant differences between the Web-based peer supervision groups and the comparison group with regard to their pretest CSES scores, t(46) = .73, p > .05. Moreover, a multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between the two groups on the pretest case conceptualization etiology and treatment scores, F(2, 45) = .98, p > .05. A univariate analysis of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (ANCOVA ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance ) was calculated to examine posttest differences between the Web-based peer supervision groups and the comparison group on the CSES, using the CSES pretest scores as a covariate. Results revealed that school counselor trainees in the Web-based peer supervision group reported significantly higher collective self-esteem than did trainees in the comparative group, F(1, 45) = 27.53, p < .001. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA MANCOVA Multivariate Analysis of Covariance ) then was computed to explore posttest differences between the Web-based peer supervision groups and the comparison group on the etiology and treatment case conceptualization variables, after controlling for school counselor trainees' pretest scores on these variables. The overall MANCOVA was significant, Pillai's trace = .39, F(2, 43) = 13.61, p < .001. Follow-up ANCOVAs indicated that school counselor trainees assigned to the Web-based peer supervision groups obtained significantly higher case conceptualization etiology scores, F(1, 44) = 34.44, p < .001, and treatment scores, F(1, 44) = 21.24, p < .001, than did their counterparts in the comparison group. DISCUSSION We found that receiving Web-based peer group supervision that focused on improving school counselor trainees' clinical case conceptualization skills was effective in increasing their collective self-esteem. In a related investigation, Gilbride, Breithaup, and Hoehle (1996) reported that master's degree students in rehabilitation counseling rehabilitation counseling, n counseling started in the United States in 1920 to assist individuals disabled by industrial accidents; originally included physical, psychologic, and occupational training; expanded over the next 70 years and laid the used their Web-based group for discussing professional issues. Hence, Web-based peer supervision seems to offer a supportive space for school counselor trainees' discussions about their development as professional counselors. In such a forum, peers may be able to offer support, validation, and points of connection because they may be experiencing similar issues in terms of their professional training and vocational identity development. A potentially vital implication of this study's finding is that faculty members in school counselor training programs could use Web-based supervision strategies to build a stronger sense of community among students with mutual professional interests and goals. Having a more positive sense of collective identity could serve as a buffer to professional burnout Burnout Depletion of a tax shelter's benefits. In the context of mortgage backed securities it refers to the percentage of the pool that has prepaid their mortgage. for many school counselor trainees during difficult and challenging times regarding their fieldwork responsibilities. For example, Butler and Constantine (2005) found that higher levels of collective self-esteem were associated with lower levels of professional burnout in a sample of school counselors. If their findings are considered in light of this investigation, it is possible that the collective sense of pride that some trainees may experience as a result of being a member of the school counseling profession might play a salient role in reducing feelings of burnout and in augmenting their perceived sense of professional support. Results of our investigation also indicated that school counselor trainees' case conceptualization ability increased as a result of participating in a Web-based peer supervision group focusing on clinical case conceptualizations. Similarly, Gainor and Constantine (2002) reported that the school counselor trainees in their study evidenced greater case conceptualization ability as a result of their involvement in a Web-based supervision group. Web-based supervision appears to offer school counselor trainees the opportunity to consider responses from multiple sources (instead of just a single source as in the case of individual supervision), which may expand their ability to offer more complex interpretations of students' presenting problems and potential treatment plans. Moreover, Web-based peer supervision may allow school counselor trainees to reflect on their own case conceptualizations more extensively, along with the written feedback received from peers, because they could presumably examine this information in greater depth outside of supervision and save or print out this information for use at a later date (e.g., in subsequent individual supervision sessions with their on-site fieldwork supervisor). A crucial implication of this finding is that school counselor trainees' improved case conceptualization skills, as a result of their participation in a Web-based peer supervision group, might ultimately play a salient role in bolstering their competence in addressing the mental health concerns of students in school systems. Despite the current study's findings, it seems essential to note that Gainor and Constantine (2002) reported that school counselor trainees who participated in Web-based peer group supervision reported less satisfaction with supervision and were found to have fewer case conceptualization competencies than did trainees who participated in face-to-face peer group supervision. A primary implication of their findings is that although Web-based peer supervision might be an effective means of increasing school counselor trainees' collective self-esteem and competence in conceptualizing students' mental health issues, academic training programs in school counseling should attempt to provide face-to-face pcer group supervision when possible (Gainor & Constantine). In cases where adjunctive ad·junct n. 1. Something attached to another in a dependent or subordinate position. See Synonyms at appendage. 2. A person associated with another in a subordinate or auxiliary capacity. 3. in-person group supervision is simply not plausible (e.g., because of financial costs or extensive commuting time), Web-based peer supervision may be the best available group supervision alternative for many school counselor trainees. Limitations of the Study There are several potential limitations of our investigation. First, although we found significant differences in pretest and posttest collective self-esteem and case conceptualization scores between the school counselor trainees who participated in the Web-based peer supervision group and their no-treatment peers, we cannot solely attribute such changes to the Web-based intervention. For example, participants were assigned to treatment conditions based on convenience, rather than by random assignment, and this phenomenon might have affected aspects of the study's outcomes. Additional investigations, particularly studies using random assignment of participants, are needed to determine whether such effects can be replicated. Second, the relatively small sample size raises two main concerns: generalizability of the findings and representativeness of the sample. Although the participants came to the school counseling program from various geographical regions, they were all school counselor trainees in the same program. Thus, these trainees may not represent the experiences of school counselors in training in other academic programs. Third, most of our sample was White and female. Although most school counselors and school counselor trainees in the United States are White, future studies should explore the use of peer supervision groups with counselors from more culturally diverse backgrounds. Conclusions Web-based peer supervision groups may help to build a stronger sense of community among school counselor trainees who may not otherwise be able to share information, thoughts, feelings, or feedback outside of the classroom. Another advantage of using Web-based peer supervision in school counselor training programs is that it may be cost-effective. In addition, this supervision modality modality /mo·dal·i·ty/ (mo-dal´i-te) 1. a method of application of, or the employment of, any therapeutic agent, especially a physical agent. 2. can be accessible to many school counselor trainees from remote locations. However, several ethical considerations should be taken into account when Web-based supervision is used. For example, safeguards should be carried out to ensure that inappropriate or unauthorized individuals do not have access to confidential information Noun 1. confidential information - an indication of potential opportunity; "he got a tip on the stock market"; "a good lead for a job" steer, tip, wind, hint, lead shared over the Internet (Langford, 1996). In addition, although there are many benefits associated with online supervision relationships (Janoff & Schoenholtz-Read, 1999), important relationship cues (e.g., facial expressions facial expression, n the use of the facial muscles to communicate or to convey mood. and nonverbal communication nonverbal communication 'Body language', see there behaviors) that might exist in face-to-face supervision may not be accessible in Web-based supervision (Gainor & Constantine, 2002; Kanz, 2001). Nevertheless, there is an ongoing need to examine the effectiveness of Web-based supervision for school counselor trainees so that we may continue to gather sufficient data about this increasingly used and potentially important training tool (Gilbride & Stensrud, 1999). Web-based communication also could represent an attractive tool to some professional school counselors because face-to-face interactions with their peers might be infrequent in·fre·quent adj. 1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest. 2. . In particular, Web-based communication among school counselors located in the same geographical region might be beneficial to these individuals in terms of obtaining critical support and feedback regarding their broad and sometimes overwhelming range of professional roles and responsibilities (Kuranz, 2002; Perusse, Goodnough, & Noel, 2001). Furthermore, school counselors working in rural areas with limited professional support might benefit from Web-based consultation or supervision to expand their professional networks and receive more consistent support from their peers. References Agnew, T., Vaught, C. C., Getz, H. G., & Fortune, J. (2000). Peer group clinical supervision program fosters confidence and professionalism. Professional School Counseling, 4, 6-12. Benshoff, J. M., & Paisley, P. O. (1996). The structured peer consultation model for school counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 314-318. Borders, L. D. (1991). A systematic approach to peer group supervision. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69, 248-252. Bradley, L. J., & Kottler, J. A. (2001). Overview of counselor supervision. In L.J. Bradley & N. Ladany (Eds.), Counselor supervision: Principles, process, and practice (3rd ed., pp. 3-27). Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge. Butler, S. K., & Constantine, M. G. (2005). Collective self-esteem and burnout in professional school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 9, 55-62. Constantine, M. G., Robinson, J. S., Wilton, L., & Caldwell, L. D. (2002). Collective self-esteem and perceived social support as predictors of cultural congruity con·gru·i·ty n. pl. con·gru·i·ties 1. The quality or fact of being congruous. 2. The quality or fact of being congruent. 3. A point of agreement. Noun 1. in Black and Latino college students. Journal of College Student Development Journal of College Student Development is an academic journal founded in 1959 and is the official publication of the American College Personnel Association. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide variety of academic fields related to college , 43, 307-316. Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, D., & Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being psychological well-being Research A nebulous legislative term intended to ensure that certain categories of lab animals, especially primates, don't 'go nuts' as a result of experimental design or conditions among White, Black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin is a scientific journal published by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP). It publishes original empirical papers on subjects like social cognition, attitudes, group processes, social influence, intergroup relations, , 20, 503-513. Crutchfield, L. B., & Borders, L. D. (1997). Impact of two clinical peer supervision models on practicing school counselors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 219-230. Gainor, K. A., & Constantine, M. G. (2002). Multicultural mul·ti·cul·tur·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or including several cultures. 2. Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. group supervision: A comparison of in-person versus Web-based formats. Professional School Counseling, 6, 104-111. Gilbride, D., Breithaup, B., & Hoehle, R. (1996). The use of the Internet to support on- and off-campus learners in rehabilitation rehabilitation: see physical therapy. education. Rehabilitation Education, 10, 47-62. Gilbride, D., & Stensrud, R. (1999). Expanding our horizons: Using the Internet in rehabilitation education. Rehabilitation Education, 13, 219-229. Hillerbrand, E.T. (1989). Cognitive differences between experts and novices: Implications for group supervision. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 293-296. Janoff, D. S., & Schoenholtz-Read, J. (1999). Group supervision meets technology: A model for computer-mediated group training at a distance. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy group psychotherapy, a means of changing behavior and emotional patterns, based on the premise that much of human behavior and feeling involves the individual's adaptation and response to other people. , 49, 255-272. Kanz, J. E. (2001). Clinical-supervision.com: Issues in the provision of online supervision. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 415-420. Kuranz, M. (2002). Cultivating student potential. Professional School Counseling, 5, 172-179. Langford, D. (1996). Ethics and the Internet: Appropriate behavior in electronic communication. Ethics and Behavior, 6, 91-106. Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302-318. McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Coming out in the age of the Internet: Identity "demarginalization" through virtual group participation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 75, 681-694. McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). Causes and consequences of social interaction on the Internet: A conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see . A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. . Media Psychology, 1, 249-269. Perusse, R., Goodnough, G.E., & Noel, C. J. (2001). Use of the national standards for school counseling programs in preparing school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 5, 49-55. Powell, D. (1996). A peer consultation model for clinical supervision. The Clinical Supervisor, 14, 163-169. Roberts, E. B., & Borders, L. D. (1994). Supervision of school counselors: Administrative, program, and counseling. The School Counselor, 41, 149-157. Rust, E. B. (1995). Applications of the International Counselor Network for elementary and middle school counseling. Elementary School elementary school: see school. Guidance & Counseling, 30, 16-25. Starling, P.V., & Baker, S. B. (2000). Structured peer group practicum practicum (prak´tik  m),n See internship. supervision: Supervisees' perceptions of supervision theory. Counselor Education and Supervision, 39, 163-176. Tetlock, P. E. (1986). A value pluralism This article is about the philosophical concept of value-pluralism. For other uses of the term see, see Pluralism. In philosophical ethics, value pluralism (also known as ethical pluralism or moral pluralism model of ideological reasoning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 50, 819-827. Tetlock, P. E., & Kim, J. I. (1987). Accountability and judgment processes in a personality prediction task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 700-709. Wilbur, M. P., Roberts-Wilbur, J., Hart, G. M., Morris, J. R., & Betz, R. L. (1994). Structured group supervision (SGS SGS Société Générale de Surveillance SGS Symantec Gateway Security (appliance) SGS School of Graduate Studies SGS Subgrid Scale SGS Singapore Government Securities SGS Shell Global Solutions ): A pilot study. Counselor Education and Supervision, 33, 262-279. S. Kent Butler is an assistant professor in the Division of Counseling and Family Therapy at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. E-mail: slyconn@umsl.edu Madonna G. Constantine is Constantine I, king of Greece Constantine I, 1868–1923, king of the Hellenes, eldest son of George I, whom he succeeded in 1913. Married to Sophia, sister of the German emperor William II, he opposed the pro-Allied policy of the Greek premier, a professor in the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University Teachers College, Columbia University (sometimes referred to simply as Teachers College; also referred to as Teachers College of Columbia University or the Columbia University Graduate School of Education , New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of . This article is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Franklyn C. Williams, who was instrumental to its development.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of the Study's Variables
Combined Combined
Pretest Means Posttest Means
and Standard and Standard
Deviations for Deviations for
the Web-Based the Web-Based
Scale Groups Groups
Collective
Self-Esteem
Scale 4.77 (.95) 5.75 (.67)
Case
conceptual-
ization
etiology score 2.83 (.96) 3.54 (.88)
Case
conceptual-
ization
treatment score 2.50 (l.02) 3.46 (l.06)
Pretest Means Posttest Means
and Standard and Standard
Deviations for Deviations for
the Comparison the Comparison
Scale Group Group
Collective
Self-Esteem
Scale 4.96 (.91) 5.12 (.78)
Case
conceptual-
ization
etiology score 2.88 (.85) 2.96 (.75)
Case
conceptual-
ization
treatment score 2.50 (.72) 2.67 (.76)
Table 2. Intercorrelations Among the Study's Variables
Variable 2 3 4 5 6
1. Pretest CSES score .53 ** .05 .26 .15 .21
2. Posttest CSES score -- .09 .27 .32 * .35 *
3. Pretest CC etiology score -- .58 ** .71 ** .49 **
4. Pretest CC treatment score -- .48 ** .65 **
5. Posttest CC etiology score -- .60 **
6. Posttest CC treatment score --
Note. CSES = Collective Self-Estecm Scale (Luhtanen & Crocker,
1992); CC = case conceptualization.
Higher scores on each scale correspond to greater amounts of
the given variable.
* p < .05; ** p < .001.
|
|
||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion