Waste disposal in First-Nations communities: the issues and steps toward the future.

Introduction

The generation of waste and the collection, processing, transport, and disposal of waste constitute an important issue for both human and environmental health reasons. There is a vast body of research on the potential environmental and human health effects of waste itself and the different waste management practices (Rushton, 2003). The potential for human and environmental health effects resulting from poor waste management practices has been a longstanding concern for many First Nations communities across Canada. (First Nations is the term commonly used in Canada to describe the various societies of indigenous peoples who are accorded status as "Indians" by the Indian Act of 1985 and who are not of Inuit or Metis descent. The constitutional term applied to all three groups collectively [Indian, Inuit, and Metis] is "Aboriginal.") In the 1970s, for instance, environmental and human health hazards resulted from the mismanagement of industrial waste in the Ojibway First Nations communities of Grassy Narrows and Whitedog (LaDuke, 1992).

Waste management practices that currently encompass disposal, treatment, reduction, recycling, segregation, and modification have developed over the past 150 years, and have been implemented in many Canadian towns and cities (Hamer, 2003). In addition, waste management is tightly regulated, environmental policies have been developed, and waste-monitoring programs for all potential sources of pollution from different waste management options are being continuously carried out in most countries, including Europe, the United States, and Canada (Crowe, Ptacek, Rudolph, & McGregor, 2001; Hamer). Thus, most Western nations have environmental agencies, policies, statutes, regulations, and mechanisms for evaluating the possible impacts of waste management, for monitoring the continuing effects of existing waste management practices, and for adjudicating charges of environmental damage (Meske, 1993; Portney & Stavins, 2000). Although several agencies and policies have been developed to protect people from environmental hazards in Canada, no equivalent mechanisms exist at present within the terms of self-government agreements to enable First Nations people to control environmental impacts on their lands. Historically, First Nations have been left at the margins in policy development, and the avenues for their participation in federal, provincial, and territorial review processes still are not clear or satisfactory (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada [INAC], 2004). Thus, the current situation offers First Nations people no reliable means of protecting themselves from existing or potential human and environmental health hazards (Goldtooth, 1995; INAC, 2004). First Nations people have a strong connection to the land, and degradation of the environment may lead to subsequent declines in the cultural health of a community (Grinde & Johansen, 1995).

According to the 1996 Census of Canada, approximately 225,000 First Nations people live on reserves and in other communities (Statistics Canada, 1997), or approximately 0.7 percent of Canada's population. There are 2,267 First Nations reserves in Canada with a total land base of approximately 2,671,564.5 hectares (approximately 0.2 percent of the total Canadian land base) (Statistics Canada, National Contact Centre, 2001). Given that the reserve population is expected to double by the year 2015 and that there is a high population density in most First Nations communities, environmental pressures in these communities are expected to increase. Although the land base is relatively small in comparison to the overall land base of Canada, environmental contamination from the mismanagement of waste in First Nations communities is a growing concern (Akwesasne, 1996; LaDuke, 1992; Ransom & Lickers, 1988; Tarbell, Arquette, & Akwesasne, 2000). This article examines waste management in First Nations communities, the issues surrounding waste management practices, and the environmental degradation that First Nations communities face throughout Canada.

Solid Waste and First Nations Communities

Solid waste landfills or garbage dumps are common sources of land pollution in First Nations communities (Wolf, Spitz, Olson, Zavodska, & Algharaibeh, 2003). Most First Nations communities dispose of their solid waste on their own lands, possibly because of past encouragement by local governments and for the sake of convenience. Perhaps it was anticipated that the local landfills would be managed with periodic collection and incineration of waste. In the case of the province Saskatchewan, however, this has not occurred, and as of 1983, there are no central records of active and inactive dumps and landfills in First Nations communities, at least in Saskatchewan (Murray, 1996, appendices A-H, pp. 50-81). In addition, the locations of all areas of waste disposal in Canadian First Nations are not known and have not been documented. In the United States, starting in 1994, the Indian Health Service (IHS), a department within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, compiled a list of open dumps on tribal lands and prepared and published annual reports on these sites in cooperation with tribes, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), and other state and federal agencies (IHS, 1998). The 1998 Report on the Status of Open Dumps on Indian Lands inventoried 1,104 open dump sites that were classified as high-threat sites (IHS, 1998). Inventory, documentation, and classification of First Nations landfills in Canada have not yet been conducted. Unmonitored, undocumented, and unmarked landfills in First Nations communities of Canada may be a combined result of lack of funding, lack of infrastructure, and remoteness.

Waste disposal practices in First Nations communities have varied in the past: Individual homes/farms may bury waste on property (often in near proximity to drinking-water wells), or there may be one or more small open and uncontrolled dump sites. Some communities may also ship their waste to larger engineered landfills. Over the years, many of the designated landfills and dump sites located in First Nations communities in Canada have developed into potentially hazardous areas filled with commercial, industrial, household, medical, and some hazardous wastes. Open dumps pose a risk to the health and safety of the communities and neighboring areas because of the potential contamination of drinking-water supplies by runoff contaminants and the potential vector transmission of disease (through flies, for example) (Rushton, 2003; Fielder, Poon-King, Palmer, & Coleman, 2000; Vrijheid, 2000). Abandoned cars, trucks, and machinery are also a familiar sight in First Nations communities. Although in some cases some machinery is saved for parts and eventual repair, abandoned vehicles also pose a serious threat to health and safety in communities. While incineration of solid waste may reduce the infectious components present in waste, the process is associated with the production and release of carcinogenic and toxic compounds (Hamer, 2003; Slack, Gronow, & Voulvoulis, 2005).

Many communities are at various phases of development in their solid waste management programs, as well as their levels of self-government. Challenges faced in terms of managing solid waste may be due to an assortment of factors that include remoteness, funding, jurisdiction, and staffing. Some have made substantial growth toward sustainable, eco-friendly waste management programs. For example, during the spring and summer of 1999, the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development hired the First Nations Emergency Services Society (FNESS) to work with approximately 16 First Nations communities in the province of British Columbia to identify waste management issues and to develop appropriate and practical waste management solutions (FNESS, 1999). This program led to the development of eco-friendly approaches to waste management, including activities such as vehicle reutilization, hazardous waste disposal, composting, and recycling. Other First Nations communities, however, are constrained by the economic status of their members, limited success to date in the acquisition of government grant funding for use toward waste management, or both. Communities face the challenges of balancing needs such as health care, housing, education, and water-system infrastructure against solid waste management.

Some communities may have the option of sending their waste to nearby off-community landfills, while others still have only the option of developing their own landfill. Community size and remoteness may be limiting factors when smaller communities attempt to implement solid waste management or other environmental programs. For example, the high capital costs associated with landfill construction, equipment purchase, operation, and maintenance present considerable obstacles for many communities. These same factors may impede access to training and technical-support programs.

Government Funding, Waste Management, and First Nations Communities

First Nations communities have recognized and indicated a need to manage their own community lands, natural resources, and revenues in a way that works best for them. It is therefore reasonable that First Nations communities be allowed to specify the level of protection on their lands within the existing legal framework. In February 1996, a Framework Agreement on First Nations Land Management was signed between the Government of Canada and a group of First Nations chiefs. The Framework Agreement provided 14 signatory First Nations with the opportunity to establish their own regimes to manage their lands and resources, allowing for more decision making at the local level. The formal legislation that provides the basis for the First Nations Land Management Initiative is the First Nations Land Management Act (FNLMA) (INAC, 2004). The First Nations Land Management Initiative is First Nations--driven and was developed in full partnership between 14 signatory First Nations and the government of Canada (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2004). In March 2002, this initiative was offered to other First Nations across Canada. It allows First Nations communities the freedom and responsibility to enact and enforce environmental management and protection laws in harmony with both the provincial and federal governments of Canada. The First Nations Land Management Initiative is an important building block for greater land protection, improved economic development, and self-sufficiency in First Nations communities.

The government of Canada, through INAC, has recognized that many First Nations communities need improvements to their physical infrastructure, such as better roads and water and sewer services. As a result, it launched the Infrastructure Canada Program (ICP) in 2000, which specifically dedicated assistance to First Nations, Inuit, and northerners in building healthy and sustainable communities through financial and technical assistance for the construction, operation, and maintenance of basic community infrastructure (ICP, 2003). This six-year program is aimed at helping upgrade infrastructure in rural and urban municipalities across Canada. The First Nations component identified planned capital investments and provided resources over a two-year period, from April 2001 to March 2003.

The ICP comprises two major components: a municipal-infrastructure program for urban and rural communities ($2.05 billion) and the Strategic Highway Infrastructure Program (SHIP) ($600 million), which is administered by Transport Canada with contributions from provincial, territorial, and municipal partners. The private sector is expected to provide at least $6 billion in infrastructure investment. Overall, the ICP is designed to complement and augment the existing capacity of provincial, territorial, and municipal governments to invest in physical infrastructure (ICP, 2003).

The First Nations component of the Infrastructure Canada Program received $31.125 million for a three-year period extending from April 2001 to March 2004. With contributions from INAC, First Nations, and other partners, the total infrastructure investments in First Nations communities for this period was approximately $90 million. On average, the Infrastructure Canada Program contributed one-third of the project costs, the First Nations and INAC provided the remaining funds, and in some instances, private-sector investments were included. The ICP's priorities included projects that improve the quality of the environment and contribute to Canada's national goal of clean air and water. Provincial projects included investments in water quality and wastewater systems, as well as solid waste management practices. Secondary priorities such as projects aimed at road improvements and tourism development that could assist in effective waste management programs are also included in the First Nations component.

INAC initiated an Environment Capacity Development Initiative (ECDI) in 2001 that supported First Nations, Innu, and Inuit communities in their effort to promote environmental stewardship in a manner consistent with the principles of sustainable development (ECDI, 2001). The goals of this program were to improve public health and safety; protect the natural environment; and support the development, management, and utilization of Aboriginal traditional knowledge. The ECDI budget was approximately $1.5 million, to be used in 10 regions, with an average allocation per region of approximately $150,000. Budget allocations within any region of Canada, however, were subject to approval through proposal review (ECDI, 2001).

Although efforts are being made to provide assistance to First Nations communities to assist in waste management and other environmental programs, there are no funding grant program opportunities devoted for the establishment of a core program for environmental protection. Current resources usually exist through multiprogram grant initiatives made available by the federal government. Although such granting programs are undoubtedly supportive, they have limitations. For example, grant projects are normally only funded for one or possibly two years, a consideration that may impose a deadline that seriously hampers adequate project completion. In addition, the funds awarded do not always support realistic budget demands associated with project costs. The highly competitive nature of the grant opportunities also creates a high level of demand for available funding. Furthermore, the multiprogram nature of the grants results in competition between the immediate concern of community waste management and other pressing environmental, public health, and infrastructure priorities. In light of these considerations, First Nations communities are exploring other options to better leverage and extend resources.

Potential for Partnerships

In an attempt to deal with serious waste management and funding issues in First Nations communities, partnerships have been formed among communities and local governments. These partnerships have resulted in the sharing of resources, the development of innovative initiatives, and the movement of costly solid waste management projects. For example, some First Nation communities have partnered with corporations and regional districts to achieve community objectives in waste reduction, recycling, composting, and solid waste management. Others have formed partnerships to use nearby municipal landfills to meet the need of their waste disposal requirement. These partnerships may promote economic and environmental benefits in First Nations communities by creating broader access to technical support, training courses, and financial support programs. Another example of the benefits of partnering is the potential reduction in waste management costs that could result from sharing municipal solid waste equipment and collection trucks. Working with other First Nations or smaller communities may also lead to the expansion of waste management options and the establishment of effective waste prevention and recycling initiatives. For example, the Lytton Solid Waste Transfer Station is a success story of collaboration by three organizations in British Columbia. The Lytton First Nation, the Thompson Nicola Regional District (TNRD), and Wastech Services, Ltd., carried out a joint venture to construct a solid waste transfer station that offers a full recycling system, garbage removal, and an effluent disposal site (FNESS, 1999). The creation of partnerships has helped address a lack of funding as well as some immediate concerns related to waste management in selected communities. Programs providing support for waste management disposal in First Nations communities, however, are critical to the physical and cultural health of individuals and the environment, and thus the very livelihood of First Nations communities in Canada.

Environmental Issues: Water Supplies

Landfills have been identified as a major source of groundwater contamination (Christensen & Christensen, 2001; Kjeldsen, Grundtvig, Winther, & Anderson, 2002). Contamination of water supplies often goes undetected, however, until private wells, rivers or streams are significantly affected (Bruner et al., 1998). Although current standards for inactive landfills may require the placement of a clay cap or an engineered cover over a landfill (to reduce infiltration of precipitation into the waste), as well as ongoing monitoring in many First Nations communities throughout Canada, monitoring of groundwater in the areas of active or older inactive landfills is not performed. First Nations residents are concerned about potential exposure to harmful levels of both chemical and biological contaminants and the impacts of these contaminants on the health of their environment since older abandoned landfills are currently not capped or not being monitored. Environmental damage strikes at the spiritual core of First Nations cultures, especially for the people whose lives remain closely tied to the land and who depend largely on country resources (Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2004).

Conclusions

Where and how to begin waste management programs is a critical issue for First Nations communities with limited resources. The fundamental problem for the management of virtually all solid wastes is that these wastes comprise complex mixtures. Thus, various management strategies for solid waste management must be considered. Comprehensive solid waste management incorporates a diverse range of activities, including reduction, recycling, segregation (separation), modification, treatment, and disposal--all of which can be carried out at varying levels of sophistication. All waste management options in First Nations communities must be well thought out before implementation. Landfill selection should be based on the geological criteria of site suitability and not on the proximity or availability of large pits that may be the result of quarrying of gravel or sand. The potential for environmental contamination in First Nations communities across Canada is a growing concern. Until recently, First Nations have had little representation either in the research into the impacts of environmental contamination or in the decision-making process with respect to environmental policy. With greater control of resources, however, First Nations have the capacity to initiate control over their lands and are working toward successful waste management practices.

Corresponding Author: Lalita Bharadwaj, Assistant Professor, University of Saskatchewan, College of Nursing, 107 Wiggins Rd., Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 5E5. E-mail: [e-mail].

REFERENCES

Akwesasne, M.K. (1996). Industrial contamination-environmental recovery. Winds of Change, 11(3), 16-21.

Bruner, M.A., Rao, M., Dumont, J.N., Hull, M., Jones, T., & Bantle, J.A. (1998). Ground and surface water developmental toxicity at a municipal landfill: Description and weather-related variation. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 39(3), 215-226

Christensen, J.B., & Christensen, T.H. (1999). Complexation of Cd, Ni, Zn by DOC in polluted groundwater: A comparison of approaches using resin exchange, aquifer material sorption, and computer speciation models (WHAM and MINTEQA2). Environmental Science and Technology, 31, 3857-3863.

Crowe, A.S., Ptacek, C.J., Rudolph, D.L., & McGregor, R. (2001). Landfills and waste disposal. Retrieved February 12, 2005, from http://www.nwri.ca/threatsfull/ch12-1-e.html.

Environment Capacity Development Initiative. (2001). Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Environment and Natural Resources Directorate: Ministry of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. Retrieved March 24, 2005, from http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ps/lts/nelts/enrd/ecdi_e.html.

Fielder, H.M.P., Poon-King, P., Palmer, S.R., & Coleman, G. (2000). Assessment of the impact on health of residents living near the Nant-y-Gwyddon landfill site: Retrospective analysis. British Medical Journal, 320(1), 19-23.

First Nations Emergency Services Society. (1999). Community approaches to waste management: Eco-Friendly approaches to waste management. Retrieved February 15, 2005, from http://www.fness.bc.ca/approaches/participate/participate/htm.

Goldtooth, T. (1995). Indigenous nations: Summary of sovereignty and its implications of environmental protection. In B. Bryant (Ed.), Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies and Solutions (pp. 56-75). Washington, DC: Island Press.

Grinde, D., & Johansen, B. (1995). Ecocide of Native America: Environmental destruction of Indian lands and peoples. Sante Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishers.

Hamer, G. (2003) Solid waste treatment and disposal: Effects on public health and environmental safety. Biotechnology Advances, 22(1), 71-79.

Infrastructure Canada Program. (2003). Partners program. Retrieved February 15, 2005, from http://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/icp/partners/fn_ip_e.shtml#programdetails.

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. (2004). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Vol. 3): Gathering strength. Retrieved April 23, 2005, from http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ch/rcap/sg/sgmm_e.html.

Indian Health Service. (1998). Report on the status of open dumps on Indian lands: 1998 report. Rockville, MD: Author. Retrieved October 14, 2005, from http://www.ihs.gov/NonMedicalPrograms/DFEE/Solid_W/1998_ODReport/1998OpenDumpsReport.pdf.

Kjeldsen, P., Grundtvig, A., & Winther, P., Andersen, J.S. (1998). Characterization of an old municipal landfill (Grindsted, Denmark) as a groundwater pollution source: Landfill history and leachate composition. Waste Management Research, 16(1), 3-13.

LaDuke, W. (1992). Indigenous environmental perspectives: A North American primer. Akwekon Journal, 19(2), 63-68.

Meske, P.J. (1993). The solid waste dilemma: Municipal liability and household hazardous waste management. Environmental Law, 23, 8-10.

Murray, P.C. (1983). Identification and verification of active and inactive land disposal sites in Saskatchewan. Waterloo, Ontario: Dillon Consulting Engineers and Planners.

Portney, P.R., & Stavins, R.N. (2000). Public policies for environmental protection (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: RFF Press, Resources for the Future.

Ransom, J., & Lickers, H. (1988). Akwesasne environment: Appraisals of toxic contamination at the St. Regis Mohawk reservation. Northeast Indian Quarterly, 4, 12-19.

Rushton, L. (2003). Health hazards and waste management. British Medical Bulletin, 68(1), 183-197.

Slack, R.J., Gronow, J.R., & Voulvoulis, N. (2005) Household hazardous waste in municipal landfills: Contaminants in leachate. Science of the Total Environment, 337(1-3), 119-137.

Statistics Canada. (1997). 1996 Census Handbook. (Catalogue No. 92-352-XPE.) Ottawa: Industry Canada. Retrieved December 6, 2005, from http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/info/96_%20Handbook-2002.pdf.

Statistics Canada, National Contact Centre. (2001). Aboriginal peoples of Canada. Retrieved February 25, 2005, from http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/release/release5.cfm.

Tarbell, A., Arquette, M., & Akwesasne, M. (2000). A Native American community's resistance to cultural and environmental damage. In R. Hofrichter (Ed.), Reclaiming the environmental debate: The politics of health in a toxic culture (pp. 93-111). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vrijheid, M. (2000). Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: A review of epidemiologic literature. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(Suppl. 1), 101-112.

Wolf, A.M., Spitz, A.H., Olson, G., Zavodska, A., & Algharaibeh, M. (2003). Characterization of the solid waste stream of the Tohono O'odham nation. Journal of Environmental Health, 65(8), 9-15.

Although most of the information presented in the Journal refers to situations within the United States, environmental health and protection know no boundaries. The Journal periodically runs International Perspectives to ensure that issues relevant to our international constituency, representing over 60 countries worldwide, are addressed. Our goal is to raise diverse issues of interest to all our readers, irrespective of origin.

Lalita Bharadwaj, Ph.D.

Suzie Nilson, Ph.D.

Ian Judd-Henrey, M.Sc.

Gene Ouellette

Laura Parenteau

Ceal Tournier

Chief Daryl Watson

Chief Darcy Bear

Chief Gilbert Ledoux

Chief Austin Bear