Vocational rehabilitation outcomes of African American adults with specific learning disabilities.

Although prior research has found that African American children tend to receive special education services at a disproportionately higher rate than their Caucasian counterparts (Artiles & Trent, 1994; U.S. Department of Education, 1992), they tend to be underrepresented as adults in the state/federal vocational rehabilitation (VR) system when compared to Caucasians (Atkins & Wright, 1980; Dunham, Koller, & McIntosh, 1996b; Robertson, 1985). This is puzzling because African Americans tend to have higher rates of disabilities than Caucasians in terms of problems that interfere with work performance in general (Smart & Smart, 1997; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992).

Research regarding the nature and outcome of VR services provided to African Americans has yielded inconsistent findings. Some researchers have reported that African Americans with disabilities were accepted for services at lower rates than non-minority persons (Atkins & Wright, 1980; Dziekan & Okocha, 1993). Others have reported that African Americans were less likely to be successfully rehabilitated and more likely to be closed in lower status jobs than Caucasians (Atkins & Wright, 1980; Wright, 1988). When reanalyzing the Atkins and Wright data, however, Bolton and Cooper (1980) suggested that the 5.5% difference in acceptance rates between African Americans and Caucasians did not necessarily constitute a significant difference, especially considering that the proportion of African Americans accepted for services exceeded their representational proportion in the general population. Similarly, when comparing acceptance for service rates, Wheaton (1995) found no statistical differences between African Americans and Caucasian Americans, although Caucasians demonstrated slightly higher acceptance for service rates. Nevertheless, it has been documented that African Americans were not consumers of VR services at a rate commensurate with their representation in the general U.S. population (Dunham, et al., 1996b; Dziekan & Okacha, 1993; Rehabilitation Services Administration [RSA], 1992; Robertson, 1985).

Despite documented underrepresentation of African Americans in the VR system, it appears that no previous research has examined the vocational characteristics and outcomes of African American adults with SLD in the VR system. Previous research typically examined all disability types together and did not examine reasons for termination of VR services. Moreover, no research was found that documented reasons for unsuccessful completion of the VR process for African American adults with SLD. Before researchers and rehabilitation counselors can better understand the rehabilitation issues, clients needs, and training efficacy of African Americans in the VR system, more empirical research regarding the nature of this population of consumers is needed.

Although the successful rehabilitation rates for persons with SLD are typically found to be around 64% (Berkeley Planning Associates [BPA], 1989), which is generally consistent with other disability groups, little research has examined those factors that contribute to a successful vocational closure for adults with SLD in the VR system. Dunham et al. (1996b) found that persons with SLD who were successfully employed following VR intervention tended to have fewer functional limitations associated with attentional deficits and lower rates of depression. Further, persons whose cases were closed as unsuccessful were more likely to have received college training and guidance/counseling as a VR service.

The current study was conducted in an effort to promote a clearer understanding of the profile of African American VR consumers with SLD. As with any large group study, researching the African American VR consumer population as a homogeneous group may result in overgeneralizing the findings. There is a possibility of misinterpreting the unique characteristics and rehabilitation needs of these consumers. Nonetheless, based upon a large state VR archival data set, this study addressed five factors: (1) data reflecting participation rates in VR were compared to previous findings; (2) the demographic characteristics, psychoeducational variables, and rates of secondary psychiatric disorders were compared between those consumers whose cases were closed as successful and those closed as unsuccessful; (3) VR training variables were compared for both groups, including the type of training received, number of days in VR, and the race of the counselor; (4) the vocational placements (i.e., jobs) were examined for those persons whose cases were closed as successful; and (5) the reasons for termination were investigated for those persons whose cases were closed as unsuccessful.

Method

Participants

The original subject pool consisted of African American clients with SLD in the Missouri VR system who were independently diagnosed with SLD by licensed psychologists and whose cases were closed between fiscal year 1989 and February, 1996 (N= 144). Overall, 119 cases (83%) of the original subject pool had sufficient data to be included in the study. A total of 25 cases were missing, 23 of which had been destroyed and 2 of which were lacking sufficient data to be included in the study. Mean chronological age for the 119 participants was 20.1 (SD = 6.5) years. There were 85 males, and the average level of educational achievement at the time of referral was 11.1 (SD = 1.2). Also, at the time of referral, 35 of the participants (29%) were competitively employed and 48 (40%) were non-working students.

Procedures

In cooperation with Missouri State VR personnel, the demographic, service, and psychometric data were gathered from individual case files. Data were categorized according to closure status (i.e., "successful" or "unsuccessful"). Vocational Rehabilitation defines successful closure as employment for at least 30 hours per week for 60 days. The data were analyzed via univariate F-tests, t-tests, and chi square tests by examining the rates of successful closure and comparing the demographic, psychometric, psychiatric, and VR service variables between the two groups. Occupational placements and reasons for unsuccessful closure were then examined in order to clarify vocational outcomes. Finally, a discriminant analysis was employed in an effort to predict closure group status.

Results

Participation Rates

For the period under study (i.e., October, 1989 to February, 1996) there were 144 African American and 2225 Caucasian clients with SLD served in the VR system. Combining these two groups indicated that the African American clients represented 6.1% of the total VR population served.

Closure Status Comparisons

An analysis of the available data revealed that 62 of the 119 subjects (52%) were successfully closed following VR intervention. When including the 25 cases whose data files were destroyed or missing but whose closure status was available from computer storage, the percentage of successful closures changed minimally to 53.5%. After employing the more conservative .01 alpha level to control for the effects of multiple comparisons, no demographic or psychometric comparisons significantly differentiated the two groups. Table 1 presents the demographic and psychometric comparisons between the successful and unsuccessful groups.

Table 1
Comparison of Successful and Unsuccessful Closure Types across
Demographic and Psychometric Variables

                                          Closure Type

                                    Successful      Unsuccessful
Variable                             (n = 62)         (n = 57

Demographic

  Average age at Application         21.4 (6.5)       20.8 (6.5)
  Percent Male                          76%              67%
  Highest Grade Achieved             11.3 (1.4)       11.0 (1.1)
  Length of Longest Job              1.08 (1.9)        .53 (1.1)
  Number of Jobs Held                1.46 (1.0)       1.74 (1.8)

Psychometric

  Full Scale IQ                      87.1 (8.0)       87.1 (8.0)
  Verbal Scale IQ                    83.8 (9.1)       84.8 (8.5)
  Performance Scale IQ              94.2 (10.5)       93.6 (11.4)
  Reading Score                     79.0 (10.9)       79.9 (13.0)
  Mathematics Score                 78.2 (11.7)       80.8 (11.2)
  Writing Score                     77.4 (12.8)       78.1 (12.2)

Variable                              t

Demographic

  Average age at Application          .52
  Percent Male                       1.2(a)
  Highest Grade Achieved             1.21
  Length of Longest Job              1.91
  Number of Jobs Held                1.05

Psychometric

  Full Scale IQ                       .01
  Verbal Scale IQ                     .67
  Performance Scale IQ                .28
  Reading Score                       .35
  Mathematics Score                  1.14
  Writing Score                       .30

Note. (a) This value is a chi square value. Values in parentheses are standard deviations.

In an additional effort to predict closure status, the data were subjected to a stepwise regression analysis. Following data transformation to reduce outliers and skewness, only one independent variable, college training ([R.sup.2]=.285), contributed significantly to predicting closure type. No other VR training or psychometric variables contributed significantly to predicting vocational outcome.

Chi square comparisons of secondary diagnoses among the two groups were not significant [[x.sup.2] (1,N =119) = 10.7, p= .15], indicating that both groups had statistically similar rates of secondary diagnoses. Both groups had similar numbers of persons diagnosed with depression or dysthymic disorder (successful=5; unsuccessful=5) and adjustment disorders (successful=6; unsuccessful=5). Four individuals from the unsuccessful group had been diagnosed with conduct disorder, while none in the successful group had received this diagnosis, although that difference was not statistically significant. The remaining secondary diagnoses either had empty cells or less than three each. Lastly, it should be noted that 31% (n=37) of persons with SLD in this study had a secondary psychiatric diagnosis of some type.

Vocational Training and Outcomes

In regard to VR training, chi square tests indicated significant differences between groups on only one of the ten common VR training options. Specifically, a significantly higher proportion of persons whose cases were closed as unsuccessful were provided college training [[x.sup.2] (1, N =119) = 7.73, p =.005]. Two additional training options, vocational school [[x.sup.2] (1, N = 119) = 5.44, p = .020] and maintenance [[x.sup.2] (1, N = 119) =3.3, p = .067] were associated with successful outcomes, although differences between groups were not statistically significant. Finally, no differences were noted between groups when comparing the number of services provided [t (1, N =119) =.72 p =.47], the number of days in VR [t (1, N = 119) = .44, p =.471], or the percentage with an African American counselor [[x.sup.2] (1, N =119) = .001, p = .98]. Table 2 summarizes the VR training comparisons across groups.

Table 2
Comparison of Successful and Unsuccessful Closure Types
across VR Service Variables

                                                Closure Type

                                         Successful    Unsuccessful
Variable                                  (n = 62)      (n = 57)

Diagnosis and Evaluation                  100           96.5
Restoration                                 9.7          5.3
College                                     9.7         29.8
Other Academics                            21.0         15.8
Business School                             0.0          3.5
Vocational School                          27.4         10.5
On-the-Job Training                        25.8         17.5
Personal/Vocational Adjustment             11.3         19.3
Maintenance                                40.0         24.6
Days in Vocational Rehabilitation(a)       773 (487)    816 (569)
Number with African Am. Counselor           8           14

Variable                                 [x.sup.2]

Diagnosis and Evaluation                   2.2
Restoration                                 .83
College                                    7.7(**)
Other Academics                             .53
Business School                            2.2
Vocational School                          5.4(*)
On-the-Job Training                        1.2
Personal/Vocational Adjustment             1.5
Maintenance                                3.4
Days in Vocational Rehabilitation(a)        .44(b)
Number with African Am. Counselor           .001(c)

Note. Values in closure type cells are percentages. (a) Values in parentheses are standard deviations in days. (b) This value is a t score. (c) This value is a chi square.

(*) p < .05. (**) p <.01.

Of those persons successfully rehabilitated, a review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) first digit code indicated that 48.4% (n=30) were placed in service occupations, while 16.7% (n=10) were placed in clerical occupations. The remaining 22 persons were distributed across the other 8 DOT occupational categories.

Reasons for Termination

Of the 57 participants whose cases were closed as unsuccessful, 43 (75.5%) were closed as either "refused further services" (n = 20) or "failure to cooperate" (n = 23). The remaining 14 clients were closed as either "unable to locate" (n = 8), "institutionalized" (n = 1), or "other" (n = 4). One case was missing this variable.

Discussion

Participation Rates

Comparing the actual number of African Americans (N=144) to the number of Caucasians (N=2225) being served during the same time period, it appears that African Americans were underrepresented. African Americans comprise approximately 12% of the general population in Missouri (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1994). Although comparing rates of participation to actual population proportions may be simplistic and potentially misleading (Wheaton, 1995), differences in representation are nonetheless apparent, and are commensurate with those reported by others (Dunham et al., 1996b; Dziekan & Okocha, 1993; Robertson, 1985).

Various hypotheses have been offered to account for the underrepresentation of minorities who receive VR services. Dziekan and Okocha (1993) hypothesized that lower proportions of minority clients may have actually met eligibility criteria, or that client perceptions of real or imagined delays with the acceptance process lead to self-termination. Indeed, others have hypothesized that African Americans regard the referral process skeptically or negatively and choose to rely upon other resources for training and employment (Ayers, 1977; Feist-Price & Ford-Harris, 1994; Jenkins & Amos, 1983). Similarly, Danek and Lawrence (1982) reported that African American client cases were more often closed due to "lack of cooperation," whereas Caucasian client cases were more often closed as "refused services." Although it has been found that 50% of African American clients terminate services after the first counselor meeting, compared to 30% for Anglo-American clients (Sue & Sue, 1990), the current study documented no differences in success rates for persons who had an African American counselor and those who had a Caucasian counselor.

Conversely, it can be argued that the underrepresentation of African Americans in the VR system is due to their lack of referral to VR. Because of the increased emphasis on school-to-work transition, many young adults who are referred to VR begin the application process during their junior or senior year in high school (Koller, 1994). Consideration of the disproportionately high drop-out rate for African American youths in the U.S. (National Black Child Development Institute, Inc., 1986), as well as disproportionate rates of absenteeism (U.S. Department of Education, 1994), makes it conceivable that many African American students with SLD are simply not in school their junior and senior years to be referred. It can also be hypothesized that, because African Americans tend to score lower on standardized tests of intelligence (Sattler, 1990), it is statistically more difficult for them to meet the ability-achievement difference required for LD eligibility in the schools. As a result, they are not referred to VR while in high school.

Closure Status Comparisons

Consistent with previous findings (Danek & Lawrence, 1982; RSA, 1992), the data indicate that the population of African American consumers with SLD experienced lower rates of success when compared to the general population of VR consumers. Berkeley Planning Associates (1989) for example, reported that 69% of 465 participants from the general VR population had cases successfully closed. Compared to other studies which were limited to SLD populations, however, the differences were not as pronounced. For the current study, 1395 (62.7%) of the 2225 Caucasians whose cases were closed during this same time period were closed as successfully rehabilitated. Among African American clients, 77 (53.5%) of the 144 consumers experienced a successful closure--a difference of 9.2 percentage points. Reasons for the disproportionality in closure success rates between African Americans and Caucasians cannot be explained by the current data.

Participants in the study demonstrated overall low average range cognitive ability levels which is consistent with results reported previously (BPA, 1989). However, when compared to the Dunham et al. (1996b) study which was predominantly Caucasian, participants averaged 6.5 points lower on measures of cognitive ability and 3 points lower on academic achievement tests. These differences are consistent with comparisons between African American and Caucasians on standardized measures in general (Sattler, 1990).

In regard to secondary psychiatric disturbances, no differences between the two closure groups were noted, although the participants in this study had substantial rates of psychiatric problems. The current prevalence rates are similar to those reported previously for an SLD rehabilitation sample (Dunham et al., 1996b). While differences in success rates between Caucasians and African Americans cannot be attributed to any specific variable(s), it is plausible that a combination of high incidence psychiatric factors, low average cognitive functioning, and significant academic achievement deficits characterize this group as having more severe vocational impairments.

Vocational Training and Outcomes

Very few differences in the provision of VR training were found between those persons whose cases were closed as successful and those closed as unsuccessful. As in previous studies (Dunham et al. 1996b), college training was the only VR service that predicted closure status. It is not immediately clear why this training option was negatively associated with successful outcomes. It can be speculated that those persons provided this training option were either ill-prepared (e.g., academically, cognitively, organizationally) to compete at the college level, or were not provided sufficient support services (e.g., accommodations) commensurate with their functional limitations. Though not statistically significant at the more conservative .01 alpha level, vocational school training was positively associated with successful closure.

A clear majority (48.4%) of those persons whose cases were closed as successful were employed in service occupations, followed by clerical occupations (16.7%) and professional/technical occupations (6.5%). These findings are similar to the BPA (1989) study which reported that 35% of successfully rehabilitated clients were closed in a service occupation, 15% were closed in a clerical/sales occupation, and 6% were closed in a professional/technical trade. Differences were noted when compared to previous research (Dunham, Multon, & Koller, (1998) which reported approximately 15% of participants were closed in a professional/technical trade, although comparisons across other DOT categories were remarkably similar. Differences in professional/technical trade closures between the current study and the Dunham et al. study may be due to the number of VR consumers attending college (29% versus 19%) which naturally should increase the likelihood of subsequent placement in a professional/technical setting.

Reasons for Closure

When unsuccessful closures were examined, a large number of individuals in this study were closed by their counselors as "failure to cooperate" (n = 24) and "refused further services" (n=20). This is a similar proportion reported by others (Atkins & Wright, 1980; Danek & Lawrence, 1982) who examined African American VR clientele as a whole. African Americans seeking VR services are, on average, likely assigned to Caucasian counselors. While reviews of outcomes from cross-cultural dyads are mixed, researchers consistently argue that the counselor must be sensitive to cultural variables in order to be effective (Feist-Price & Ford-Harris, 1994). African American clients may also bring longstanding suspicions and expectations that the institution will not be responsive to their needs, and will be an uncaring bureaucracy. For example, an individual may have very pressing, immediate needs for support, while the length of time for VR services, from application to closure (according to the current study), is slightly over two years. While previous research suggests that many African Americans, based upon historical and personal experiences, may have difficulty trusting that a counselor of another race will be able to sufficiently understand their situations (thus resulting in unsuccessful rehabilitation), these findings were not supported in the current study.

Implications for Practice

These results have four primary implications for current rehabilitation practice. First, counselors should recognize that cultural differences and perceptions of trust in their African American clients are important motivators of behavior. This is particularly relevant considering that a large percentage of unsuccessful clients were categorized as "failure to cooperate," and that the average time to completion was two years. It may be that African American clients simply have more immediate needs for financial support and/or may perceive the length of time required as unrealistic and not feasible.

Second, counselors should be aware that a significant proportion of those African American clients applying for VR services because of a specific learning disability will have (on average) lower average intellectual abilities (particularly verbal abilities) and significant academic deficits in all areas. As a result, training options should be carefully evaluated for available support services (e.g., mentor) and access to accommodations. While this is best practice for vocational counselors with any client, it seems particularly relevant for African American clients with SLD. At the very least, any verbal communication, from the initial client contact to on-the-job training/placement, should be accompanied by written and/or diagrammatic summaries.

Third, a significant proportion of those clients referred for services (approximately one-third in the current study) are likely to have a secondary psychiatric disturbance which should be considered in vocational programming. Because of the high incidence rates of cognitive and psychiatric difficulties with this population of VR consumers, a thorough assessment prior to service delivery is warranted. However, situationally-related assessments may in fact be more appropriate given the history and inherent nature of individualized, standardized testing with African Americans.

Finally, college training should be carefully considered before being provided for any individual with SLD. When it is pursued, it should be scrutinized for available support services, since skill deficits create a high risk for academic failure. Vocational school training, on the other hand, appears to be underutilized as a viable training option.

Future Research

Additional research is needed to clarify reasons for termination of VR services. Qualitative research may be useful in this regard, although more empirical research (with more subjects) involving comparisons between client retention rates and success rates of ethnically similar counselor/client dyads would be helpful. Further research is also needed to determine the possible relationship between length of VR intervention, college training, vocational training, and closure status. Similarly, the quality of support services provided during college training should be examined further. Lastly, it would be beneficial to examine the proportion of African American students with SLD referred to VR during high school. Hypotheses regarding the link between drop out rates, referral rates, and the actual number of students available for referral could be addressed.

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Mardis D. Dunham, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, P. O. Box 9, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071

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