Vocational rehabilitation counselor perceptions of the General Educational Development test. (Counselor Perceptions).

In 1999, more than 44 million adults in the United States did not have a high school diploma (General Educational Development Testing Service [GEDTS], 1999). For most persons without a high school credential, vocational and personal success is elusive. For example, persons who drop out are 72% more likely to be unemployed and earn 27% less than high school graduates (Department of Labor, 1996). For persons with disabilities, the statistics are even more sobering, as they are significantly less likely to complete high school than the population in general. For example, research has demonstrated that persons 15 to 20 years of age with disabilities fail to complete high school at twice the rate as those without disabilities (41% vs. 21%). For persons with specific learning disabilities (SLD), the percentages are comparable, with 38% failing to complete high school (Marder & D'Amico, 1992).

One avenue for obtaining a high school credential that is available to individuals who drop out of high school is the General Educational Development (GED) testing process. Originally developed in 1942, the GED test is administered to more than 800,000 individuals per year. The result has been that more than 14 million people have earned the high school equivalency with the GED since its inception (GEDTS, 1999). The eight hour exam, comprised of five content areas--writing skills, social studies, mathematics, science, literature and arts--is designed to measure the general academic skills and knowledge acquired during four years of high school. Passing scores are preset so that examinees must perform as well as or better than two-thirds of the graduating high school students on whom the test was normed. Unfortunately, of the 44 million individuals who dropped out of high school in 1999, less than 2% attempted to earn a high school credential by passing the GED test (GEDTS, 1999).

For persons with disabilities, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 allows for the utilization of compensatory testing strategies. For individuals taking the GED exam, test accommodations can be provided to eligible persons with disabilities in an effort to minimize the impact of a person's disability on their GED test performance. Sample accommodations include access to an approved scribe, reader, or both; use of a calculator; a distraction-free testing environment; and extended time. However, despite the availability of accommodations, only 2,547 persons requested SLD accommodations in fiscal year 2000 in the United States and its territorial holdings. Whereas the number of adults receiving accommodations in 2000 represents a significant increase (over 110%) compared to 1993, the overall number of requests for SLD accommodations decreased by 19% in 2000 compared to 1999 (GEDTS, 2000).

Some authorities have estimated that between 50% and 80% of the adults in Adult Basic Education (ABE) programs have a learning disability (Nightingale, 1991). More recent research has found that most adults with learning disabilities in state vocational rehabilitation systems fail to complete high school (Adelman & Vogel, 1990; Dunham, Koller, & McIntosh, 1996) and remain financially dependent upon others (Hating & Lovett, 1990; Spekman, Goldberg, & Herman, 1992). [For further discussion of the vocational outcomes of adults with SLD, see Kavale and Forness (1996), Dunham, Koller, and McIntosh (1996), or Koller (1997)].

Under the auspices of the Rehabilitation Services Administration, the state/federal Division of Vocational Rehabilitation (DVR) serves persons with disabilities by helping provide guidance, assessment, vocational training, and job placement for those who qualify for services (Dowdy & Smith, 1994). Although the GED or participation in formal ABE coursework in pursuit of the GED is not automatically required for DVR consumers without a high school diploma, this avenue of training is naturally mandated when the consumer desires DVR-sponsored training that requires the GED or high school diploma as a prerequisite for post- secondary training. Thus, given the state/federal mandate for DVR to provide rehabilitation services for individuals with SLD, and, the increasing need for a client to possess either the high school diploma or its equivalent (GED), it is logical to assume that DVR should be a major conduit through which a qualified applicant could receive accommodations to take the GED exam.

Purpose

A review of the literature, however, revealed no studies targeting vocational rehabilitation (VR) counselors' understanding of the GED accommodation process, including the GED procedural application mechanism or the ABE pre-instructional training available for candidates with disabilities taking the GED exam. Most individuals with learning disabilities who seek DVR services failed to complete high school (Dunham, Koller, & McIntosh, 1996) and, therefore, are in need of the GED. The purpose of the study was to solicit information about DVR counselors' knowledge of and opinions about the GED examination, its application process, and available ABE resources. Ideally, this information should help GED administrators understand the perceptions of DVR counselors toward the GED and its importance in the VR process for individuals with disabilities seeking training and employment. This information should also help to determine areas where interagency collaboration and targeted education are needed in order to increase the referral base of persons with SLD seeking accommodations on the GED. In short, a significant need exists to increase the knowledge of both consumers and their advocates regarding the GED/SLD accommodations process. There are several reasons for this need. For example, it has been documented that SLD constitutes the fastest growing disability population in the DVR system (Dowdy & Smith, 1994; Koller, 1997), and that there is an increased need for collaborative problem solving, credentialing, and productivity (Brown & Gerber, 1994). Additionally, a new edition of the GED was released for national distribution in January 2002.

Procedure

A 31-item questionnaire was constructed and field-tested (see Appendix). Twenty-seven items were presented in a five-point Liken format (responses ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), while the remaining four questions were open-ended, allowing the VR counselor to independently and anonymously express personal opinions. Issues addressed included views on the adequacy of counselor training on the GED, knowledge about the content of the GED and the GEDTS accommodations allowed, perceived importance of the GED to the future vocational success of clients with SLD, and perceived equitability of the GED with the high school diploma. Additionally, the questionnaire was designed to address views on impediments to attaining the GED credential, VR counselor perceived knowledge and awareness of the ABE instructor regarding the nature of SLD, and the GEDTS application process for eligibility.

It should be noted that the focus of the study was not on the psychometric properties of the instrument; the number of respondents was small and the questionnaire was written only for the purpose of gathering basic information related to the importance of the topic and the clients with SLD that are served in the state vocational rehabilitation system. As such, only descriptive data from the 27 Likert items were of interest and are reported. Further, the four open-ended questions were coded according to the presence of common threads (i.e., tallied for common statements) and provide additional support for information gathered through the items of the questionnaire.

With the assistance of DVR leadership, the questionnaire was administered via mail to the entire field staff (N = 153) of the VR counselors from the Missouri Division of Vocational Rehabilitation. There was a 100% return rate. The vast majority of the VR counselors (146) were CSPD (Comprehensive System of Personnel Development) certified; as a condition of employment, the remaining seven were in the process of securing CSPD certification at the time the questionnaire was administered. In addition, a master's degree in vocational rehabilitation or the human services area is required for employment as a VR counselor.

Results and Discussion

The 27 Likert items were intended to elicit information pertaining to three main constructs: (a) VR counselors' views on the attainment of the GED as important to the future success of clients who do not have a high school diploma, (b) The GED certificate's perceived equitability to a high school diploma, and (c) VR counselor's perceptions of existing obstacles to obtaining the GED.

Importance to Client's Future Success

In general, the population of VR counselors reported a strong positive attitude toward the importance of the GED to the future vocational success of their clients in terms of employability and admittance to post-secondary training. For example, regardless of the type of disability, over 70% either strongly agreed or agreed that it is important for a person who dropped out of high school to obtain the GED credential in order to secure employment, and over 96% either strongly agreed or agreed that it is important for a person who dropped out of high school to obtain the GED credential in order to gain admittance to a post-secondary training program.

The percentages were similar when items were directed specifically at individuals with SLD who dropped out of high school (60% and 94%, respectively). Additionally, and most encouraging, were the findings that more than 76% of the population either strongly agreed or agreed that it is important to recommend that, clients with SLD who dropped out of high school, take the GED examination. Moreover, approximately 75% of the population reported that they always refer clients for GED testing, regardless of whether or not they have SLD. The most frequently cited reasons for not referring clients for GED testing were a lack of interest or motivation on the client's part (36%) and the client's low ability or low IQ (37%). The high percentage of clients that are unwilling to attempt the GED, however, indicates a need for exploring, from the clients' perspective, why so many are disinterested in obtaining a GED certificate. For example, it could be reasoned that clients with SLD lack the knowledge of available test accommodations or that they perceive that obtaining the accommodations presents as a significant obstacle. In addition, because of the nature of their disability, consumers with SLD may wish to avoid tasks that highlight their academic skill deficits.

Equality between the GED Certificate and the High School Diploma

The VR counselors in the study equated the GED certificate with the high school diploma. Approximately 67% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that GED recipients are just as likely as those with a high school diploma to complete a post-secondary training program. Seventy-one percent either strongly agreed or agreed that GED recipients are just as likely to obtain skilled labor jobs as those with a high school diploma. Only 18% of the respondents agreed that GED recipients are less likely to complete the VR application process (versus 45% who disagreed), and only 11% either strongly agreed or agreed that GED recipients are less likely to receive a status 26 closure (i.e., successful closure) than are other high school graduates (versus 58% who disagreed).

Obstacles to Obtaining the GED

Some of the most telling data came from items that probed counselors' perceptions about the obstacles that interfere with consumers' success in either navigating the GED process or success on the test itself. Although VR counselors rate as positive their views regarding the GED and its importance to clients with SLD, several critical operational obstacles were identified which centered around four basic issues. These four basic issues were VR counselor training, test difficulty for clients with SLD, the paperwork involved in obtaining accommodations, and the knowledge base of the ABE instructors and GED examiners who prepare the candidates for taking the GED and administrate the exam, respectively. In addition, several respondents wrote comments--surrounding SLD issues, ABE instructors, and GED examiners--that provide considerable insight into the possible barriers that exist for clients who are attempting to obtain the GED certificate (see Table 2).

Training. Overall, VR counselors admit to a lack of knowledge about the GED. Ninety-one percent of the respondents rated their graduate training in this area as inadequate, and 76% rated the availability of workshops on the GED as inadequate. As a result, an overwhelming percentage of respondents (94%) reported the desire for information about the newest edition of the GED test as part of future VR inservice training. The information regarding training issues obtained from the open-ended items on the questionnaire supported that obtained from the Likert scale items. Fifty-five percent of the VR counselors responded that they were unfamiliar with the accommodations allowed on the GED (20% were neutral). Further, when asked to name the subject areas covered on the GED examination, only 11% were able to name the exact areas covered on the test, while another 6% responded with close approximations. The situation was far worse in response to the probing of VR counselors' knowledge about available GED accommodations. Fifty percent of the respondents were aware that extra time could be provided, 40% were aware of the use of readers, and only 24% knew of allowances for a separate or quiet testing room. In addition, nearly 30% of the counselors stated that they did not know what accommodations were allowed, were unsure (but took a guess), or failed to respond to this item. A small number (2.6%) stated that no accommodations were allowed. Not surprisingly, approximately 47% of those respondents who were unfamiliar with the availability of accommodations spontaneously responded again to the item asking for additional comments by expressing a desire for more training in the area of GED testing.

Test difficulty. Approximately 55% of the VR counselors believed that it is difficult for a client with SLD to pass the GED because of test difficulty. An additional 25% were neutral as to whether or not test difficulty presents a barrier to obtaining the GED certificate for these clients. On a more positive note, however, almost 50% of respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that clients with SLD who have been granted accommodations are just as likely to pass the GED as clients who do not have a SLD.

Obtaining accommodations. According to the perceptions of the VR counselors in this study, accommodations may be difficult to obtain and, when granted, may not always be appropriate for the client. Approximately 10% of VR counselors were very critical regarding the delay in establishing accommodations eligibility, as well as the different operational definitions and standards of SLD eligibility that exist across agencies. Fifty percent of respondents regarded the paperwork involved in obtaining accommodations, when completed by the client, as an impediment to obtaining the GED. Although only 24% of respondents agreed that the paperwork requesting accommodations is difficult for counselors themselves to complete, 45% were neutral on this item. It is possible, however, that a large percentage of counselors had not attempted to complete such paperwork and, thus, were unable to respond to this item. Similarly, when asked about the appropriateness of accommodations granted to their clients with SLD, 55% of the VR counselors were neutral. Fifteen percent of respondents, however, either disagreed or strongly disagreed with the appropriateness of accommodations granted to their clients. This finding may indicate a misperception on the part of counselors as to what constitutes an appropriate accommodation or may indicate poor communication between counselors and GED test examiners as counselors attempt to advocate for their clients. Future examination of the accommodation granting process, therefore, could prove to be valuable.

Knowledge of ABE instructors and GED examiners. The VR counselors expressed considerable doubt regarding the knowledge of SLD principles and practices possessed by ABE instructors and GED examiners. Thirty-four percent of the counselors either strongly disagreed or disagreed that ABE instructors are sufficiently knowledgeable about the nature of SLD, while 60% were neutral on this item. Thirty-eight percent either strongly disagreed or disagreed that GED examiners are knowledgeable about SLD as a disability, while 47% were neutral. In addition, 44% of the counselors reported poor communication and cooperation with the GED examiners, while 34% reported poor communication and cooperation with their ABE representative. Both of these items produced a large number of neutral responses (47% and 38%, respectively). Thus, only a small percentage of VR counselors actually believed that communication and cooperation among these agencies was adequate.

Recommendations and Conclusions

First, as one of the largest state/federal agencies that do or should refer clients with SLD to secure the GED credential, the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation should assure that VR counselors receive training on current GED practices. One avenue of VR counselor inservice training could be through the Rehabilitation Continuing Education Program (RCEP) mandated and administrated by the Rehabilitation Services Administration in cooperation with each state VR agency. This type of training should also extend to other service providers across agencies including GED examiners and ABE personnel. Cross training, wherein GED and ABE personnel receive information on VR practices, could prove useful as well.

Second, the results of this investigation also reflect an apparent lack of rehabilitation counselor preparation as a part of their required university training. At the university graduate student training level, specific information related to the GED test itself, the application process to secure VR client approved test taking accommodations, as well as how interagency collaborative efforts can be maximized should be made available. If a person graduates from a CORE accredited institution, this information should be required curriculum. Additionally, for those VR counselors seeing CSPD certification, knowledge of the GED application process for individuals with disabilities should be mandatory.

Third, the need is critical for both inter- and intra-agency communication on matters surrounding the GED. For example, individual local VR agencies should initiate effective dialogue and collaboration relating to disabilities and how the client can secure formal, approved accommodated services on the GED. Topics of discussion could include the VR and GED eligibility process, identification and location of approved ABE programs which offer free GED instruction, location of GED testing centers, ways each agency can advocate on the behalf of the client seeking services, and sharing of inservice training across content areas and disciplines.

Fourth, the issue of streamlining the application process to ensure expediency is also recommended. Also, when individuals with SLD who have dropped out of school apply for VR eligibility, they (or their advocates) should be provided with GED literature on how to secure accommodation services. Note: The General Educational Testing Service in Washington, D.C., has readily available printed material for this purpose. Its address is as follows:

General Educational Development Testing Service
American Council on Education
One Dupont Circle NW, Suite 250
Washington, D.C. 20036-1163
Website: http://www.acenet.edu/calec/ged/home.html

Furthermore, each individual state and U.S. holding provide services to individuals with disabilities who request information regarding GED accommodations. A listing of individual state agencies and their addresses can be obtained at the same address above.

In this particular investigation, the Missouri Department of Vocational Rehabilitation has taken an immediate proactive remedial stance. Specifically, as a part of new VR counselor training, instruction is provided to all counselors regarding the GED, it's application process, and its relevance to the client's training/employment success. Resource material is also provided regarding individual community ABE contacts and testing sites with which the VR counselor can consult.

It should be noted that this research included a population of VR counselors in one state and may not generalize to other states or agencies. However, evidence gathered by the second and third authors involved in other state and regional workshop development efforts for education, welfare, and rehabilitation personnel suggests that a general awareness of the GED process is limited. Given that a new version of the GED is now available, the current timing for needed updated instruction is readily apparent. Future research should attempt to replicate these findings in other states or regions, as differences in counselor training, collaboration, or both among ABE instructors, GED personnel, and VR counselors may moderate the findings.

As any rehabilitation counselor can attest, issues of disability continue to escalate as individuals seek gainful employment. Awareness of the new GED test, as well as how to navigate the GED eligibility process, can significantly enhance client success and facilitate successful closures. The implication for the VR client is clear: Unless the VR counselor is knowledgeable concerning the GED and its application process, including procedures for obtaining accommodations, client advocacy will suffer.

Appendix--VR Questionnaire

Please circle your response to each of the following items. Answer
each item to the best of your knowledge.

1.  In graduate school, I received adequate formal training on the GED.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

2.  The availability of GED workshops for those in my field is adequate.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

3.  I am familiar with the GED accommodations for the SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

4.  It is important for a positive vocational outcome that my client has
    either a high school diploma or a GED certificate.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

5.  It is important to recommend that a client with SLD who is a high
    school dropout take the GED examination.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

6.  In my opinion, persons who drop out of high school are less likely
    to result in a status 26 closure than are GED recipients.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

7.  In my opinion, GED recipients are less likely to complete the VR
    application process than are clients with a high school diploma.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

8.  In my opinion, GED recipients are less likely to receive a status 26
    closure than are clients with a high school diploma.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

9.  I almost always refer persons who have dropped out of high school,
    regardless of whether or not they are SLD, for GED testing.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

10. It is important for a person who has dropped out of high school to
    obtain the GED certificate in order to secure employment.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

11. It is important for persons who have dropped out of high school to
    obtain the GED certificate in order to gain admittance
    into a post-secondary training program.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

12. Persons who dropout of school are just as likely to obtain skilled
    labor jobs as GED recipients.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

13. GED recipients are just as likely to obtain skilled labor jobs as
    those with a high school diploma.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

14. GED recipients are just as likely as those with a high school
    diploma to complete a post-secondary training program.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

15. It is important for an individual with SLD who has dropped out of
    high school to obtain the GED certificate in order to gain
    admittance into a post-secondary training program.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

16. It is important for a person with SLD who has dropped out of high
    school to obtain the GED certificate in order to obtain a job.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

17. Individuals with SLD who have dropped out of school are just as
    likely to be referred for GED testing as are persons who
    have dropped out of school who are not SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

18. Because of the paperwork involved, it is difficult for a person
    with SLD who has dropped out of school to obtain the GED
    certificate.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

19. It is difficult for counselors to complete the paperwork requesting
    a GED accommodation for clients who are SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

20. It is hard for an individual with SLD to pass the GED test because
    of test difficulty.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

21. In the past, the accommodations allowed seemed appropriate for my
    clients with SLD who have taken the GED.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

22. Clients with SLD who have been granted accommodations are just as
    likely to pass the GED as clients who are not SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

23. I have good communication and cooperation with our ABE
    representative.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

24. I have good communication and cooperation with the GED examiner.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

25. I feel that the ABE instructors are knowledgeable about SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

26. I feel that the GED examiner is knowledgeable about SLD.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

27. As a part of our VR inservice training, I would welcome information
    about the GED changes.
    Strongly disagree    disagree    neutral    agree    strongly agree

Please briefly answer the following questions.

28. What, if any, are some reasons that you might have for not referring
    a person who has dropped out of high school for GED testing?

29. To the best of your knowledge, what are the subject areas covered
    on the GED examination?

30. To the best of your knowledge, what are the accommodations allowed
    on the GED examination for those who have a learning disability?

31. Any other comments you would care to make?
Table 1--Twenty-seven Item Likert Scale Percentages *

        Strongly                                    Strongly
Item    Disagree    Disagree    Neutral    Agree     Agree

 1        44.4        46.4         5.2       2.0       1.3
 2        21.6        54.2        15.7       6.5       0.7
 3         7.8        45.8        19.6      22.9       3.3
 4         0.7         5.9         5.9      32.7      54.9
 5         0.0         5.9        17.0      45.1      32.0
 6         2.6        11.8        25.5      45.1      14.4
 7         8.5        45.1        28.1      18.3       0.0
 8         5.9        57.5        25.5       9.8       1.3
 9         1.3         8.5        15.0      51.0      24.2
10         0.0        13.7        13.7      49.7      22.9
11         0.0         2.6         0.7      27.5      69.3
12        12.4        58.2        15.0      13.7       0.7
13         2.0        12.4        14.4      60.8      10.5
14         2.0        13.1        17.6      60.1       7.2
15         0.0         1.3         4.6      49.7      44.4
16         0.0        18.3        20.9      46.4      14.4
17         0.7        15.7        13.1      54.9      15.7
18         1.3        18.3        30.1      42.5       7.8
19         6.5        24.2        45.1      18.3       5.9
20         0.7        19.0        25.5      45.1       9.8
21         4.6        10.5        55.6      28.1       0.7
22         0.7        12.4        38.6      47.7       0.7
23         7.8        26.1        37.9      21.6       6.5
24        10.5        33.3        47.1       8.5       0.7
25         6.5        31.4        48.4      13.1       0.7
26         6.5        28.1        60.1       4.6       0.7
27         0.0         1.3         2.6      37.9      56.2

* In cases where percentages do not add to 100, some respondents did
not answer the item
Table 2--Participants' Comments Related to SLD Issues, ABE Instructors,
and GED Examiners

SLD issues         Comments

                   The GED is very difficult if the client dropped out
                   of school because the disability made learning
                   difficult. They cannot pass the GED.

                   As a VRC, I have never had instructions on what I
                   can recommend for my clients whom are SLD taking the
                   GED.

                   I've never received training on GED information.
                   [I am] unsure of the paperwork process for
                   accommodations.

                   The whole process of requesting special
                   accommodations is too complicated and time consuming
                   for SLD clients and counselors. [Clients with] SLD
                   get frustrated and just don't follow through.

                   It should not take months to get accommodations
                   approved. I have had clients ready to take the test
                   and had job offers that require a GED or diploma-but
                   lost the opportunity waiting for the accommodations.

                   I have tried to get accommodations for a client with
                   borderline intellectual functioning and [a VR
                   psychologist] recommended unlimited time. The GED
                   review team in Washington took two months to reply
                   to the request and denied the accommodation. My
                   client has taken the GED three times and missed
                   passing by 3 to 5 points. She has now given up on
                   receiving her GED.

                   The difficulty I have faced is getting the request
                   for accommodations approved in a timely fashion or
                   approved at all.

ABE instructors/
GED examiners      Comments

                   There is a big gap in instruction for persons with
                   SLD at ABE site ... They need more help [at the] 6th
                   to 11th grade level.

                   Although ABE instructors are very good at what they
                   do-they do not have specific knowledge of SLD or
                   needed accommodations.

                   GED classes seem to be designed for people who do
                   not have difficulty learning. Often clients do not
                   want to attend because it is no different than when
                   they were in school.... Sometimes clients report the
                   teachers don't even know what accommodations to
                   make.

                   I would love to see more interaction [between] GED
                   examiners and VR. With so many horror stories
                   floating around about how difficult the GED is we
                   would be able to sell it to our consumers better
                   with more information.

                   I have a GED. It took two times of classes which
                   were administered with the same mentality as the
                   high school system. When I was absent to be at work
                   it meant (to the instructor) that I was
                   disinterested. We need facility based GED sites for
                   our clients staffed by rehab professionals who are
                   experts in working with people with disabilities.

References

Adelman, P., & Vogel, S. (1990). College graduates with learning disabilities-employment attainment and career patterns. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13, 154-166.

Brown, D. & Gerber, P. (1994). Employing people with learning disabilities. In Gerber, P. and Reiff, H. (Eds.). Learning Disabilities in Adulthood: Persisting Problems and Evolving Issues (pp. 194-203). Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Department of Labor. (1996). So you are thinking about dropping out of school, http://www.dol.gov/dol/asp/public/tibre/ dropout.htm

Dowdy, C., & Smith, T. (1994). Serving individuals with specific learning disabilities in the vocational rehabilitation system. In Gerber, P. and Reiff, H. (Eds.). Learning Disabilities in Adulthood: Persisting Problems and Evolving Issues (pp. 171-178). Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Dunham, M., Koller, J., & McIntosh, D. (1996). A preliminary comparison of successful and unsuccessful closure types among adults with specific learning disabilities in the vocational rehabilitation system. Journal of Rehabilitation. 62, 42-47.

General Educational Development Testing Service. (1999). Who took the GED?: The GED 1999 Statistical Report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

General Educational Development Testing Service. (2000). Who took the GED?: The GED 2000 Statistical Report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Haring, K., & Lovett, D. (1990). A follow-up study of special education graduates. The Journal of Special Education, 23, 108-113.

Kavale, K., & Forness, S. (1996). Learning disability grows up: Rehabilitation issues for individuals with learning disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation, 62, 36-40.

Koller, J. (1997). Vocational rehabilitation: Current practices for work preparation. In P. J. Gerber and D.S. Brown (Eds.), Learning Disabilities and Employment. (pp. 165-184). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Marder, C., & D'Amico, R. (1992). How well are youths with disabilities really doing? A comparison of youth with disabilities and youth in general. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Nightingale, D. (1991) The learning disabled in employment and training programs: Research and evaluation report series 91-E (Report No. BBB03823) Washington, DC: Urban Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED339175).

Spekman, N., Goldberg, R., & Herman, K. (1992). Learning disabled children grow up: A search for factors related to success in the young adult years. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 7, 161-170.

Karen J. Weston
James R. Koller

University of Missouri-Columbia

Mardis D. Dunham
Murray State University

Mardis Dunham, Ph.D., Dept. ELC, 3244 Alexander Hall, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071-3340.

Email: marty.dunham @coe.murraystate.edu