Using literature to model tolerance.

Abstract

There is an increased concern surrounding violence and a lack of tolerance found in some schools. In this article, we offer practical ways for teachers to integrate reading methods in and tolerance in their classrooms using recently published children's literature.

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A Context for our Concern

In the wake of the most recent outbreaks of violence in our schools and society at large, teachers, parents, students, and the community are desperately seeking answers to the question, "Why?". Sadly, it has become commonplace to regularly read headlines in the newspaper about school shootings, violence, cultural biases, bullying, and students making poor choices that negatively impact the lives of others. Researchers now believe that bullying in schools is more commonplace than originally thought (Ma, 2001). Some researchers suggest the number is as high as one out of every four children in classrooms engages in some form of bullying (Balter, 2000). As the lives of children and young adults are being scrutinized, one common thread seems to tie them together--many are fallen victims of some form of aggression, either at home or in school and feel disenfranchised from their peers (Balter, 2000).

Pellegrini and Bartini characterize bullying as "bigger and stronger youngsters' 'victimizing' their peers through the repeated use of negative actions, such as physical, verbal, or relational aggression" (2000, p. 700). Often students become victims, not because of physical characteristics, but because they lack social skills or have low self-esteem (Ma, 2001).

Now forced to grapple with two important questions concerning the well-being of students, teachers ask: 1) How do we equip students with the ability to maintain a sense of self-worth as they deal with cruel words and hurtful actions? and 2) How do we help students understand the strong impact of their negative words and actions? As advocates of students becoming effective communicators and for using the power of literature as a vehicle for such communication, we suggest the use of literature.

Understanding the Theory behind the Practice

Reader response theories vary, but may loosely be defined as "sharing a concern with how readers make meaning from their experience with the text" (Beach, 1993, p. 1). Beach describes various types of theories, but for the purpose of this article, we will focus on experiential, social, and cultural theories. Experiential reader response theorists stress the relationship between the reader and the reader's experiences with literature and how a reader might "identify with characters, visualize images, relate personal experiences with literature to the text, or construct the world of the text" (Beach, 1993, p. 8). Social reader response theories are influenced by the transaction between the reader and the text, whereas cultural theorists maintain that a reader's culture, disposition, and values affect the meaning making process.

Rosenblatt (1995) attests to the importance of seeing literature from varied perspectives. She developed the transactional reading theory that suggests readers read on a continuum, oscillating between two stances: the efferent stance concerned with what the reader takes away from a reading and the aesthetic stance representing the evocation of the literary experience. The theory was developed as a result of Rosenblatt's dissatisfaction with dichotomies and, consequently, she argues a reader never reads operating solely from one stance, but in a combination of the two. Rosenblatt contends if each reader brings a different experiential, social, and cultural background to the text, the "transaction" or the meaning gained from the literary experience will differ. This directly applies to students' experiences as different children will react to texts according to their past experiences, social and cultural backgrounds while reading in both stances.

Drawing from reader response theories of learners, children's literature can be a powerful instrument for helping readers interpret events, situations, and diverse cultures. Experiencing unfamiliar or difficult circumstances initially through literature gives readers an opportunity to explore possibilities, emotional reactions, and solutions to situations in which they may find themselves.

Understanding the Practice behind the Theory

Given compact schedules, class size, and expectations that teachers often find themselves grappling with, many do not want to willingly add "one more thing" to their daily agendas. We suggest, in concurrence with Coglan (2000), that effective classroom resolutions must be integrated into the curriculum. To that end, we offer literacy engagements we have personally used in our elementary and middle school classrooms that enrich current course curriculums. These strategies were selected because they have proven themselves effective across grade levels and with a wide range of demographics.

Teachers wishing to use literature to begin a dialogue about tolerance and acceptance must select quality children's literature, determine how the literature will be made accessible to students, and finally decide what form the response to literature will take. Next, we describe two options available to teachers as they make these very important decisions and possible choices in literature. The selected literature was based on current publication dates, theme, and application for classroom use.

Read Alouds

If only one copy of a particular piece of literature is accessible, the teacher may choose to read the book aloud to the students. This method is an effective way to model fluency. Teachers may also use a read aloud when the text is written at students' frustration level, meaning that students read the text with less than 90% accuracy in word recognition (Tompkins, 2003). A read aloud can be useful when teachers choose to engage a large group with varied reading abilities in a discussion or written response that focuses on a theme.

Both Stargirl (Spinelli, 2000) a popular book for the middle school grades and early high school years, and Loser (Spinelli, 2003), suitable for both elementary and middle school grades, are excellent choices for read alouds. Stargirl presents like no other girl who has ever attended Mica High School. She looks different, acts different, and holds different expectations of people when compared to most of her peers. This eccentric adolescent transcends the high school by challenging the norm, finding her first love, and by trying to help others become more tolerant of one another.

In Loser (Spinelli, 2003) is also a great choice for a read aloud. The main character Donald Zinkoff, is typically referenced only by his last name. This habit began early in his school career, but nonetheless leaves Zinkoff loves every aspect of life and does not seem to notice that he is alienated from his peers or that his personality challenges his teachers. He does not understand when he loses friends or when he becomes the target of bullying. In the end, Zinkoff challenges all social conventions known to the playground, but will his actions be enough to change the point of view of his peers?

Using Multiple Copies of Texts

If multiple copies of a text are accessible, teachers may choose to use literature circles to begin a dialogue. In a literature circle, students meet in small groups to read and discuss a piece of literature. Students are responsible for setting a reading schedule and leading the discussion. The teacher may participate in the literature circle, but his/her role becomes one of facilitator, not group member or instructor (Daniels, 1994). The conversation is guided and developed by topics of the students' choosing and follows a natural open dialogue. Making text accessible for students in this type of shared context allows for interaction to center around themes and experiences that are introduced in the literature. Students interpret a story, make connections based upon their personal experiences, and are invited to share connections in a whole group setting as supported by reader response theory. Giving children an opportunity to talk with their peers in a non-threatening, low anxiety environment can be an effective form of communication. This environment allows for students to begin seeing situations through someone else's eyes realizing the powerful impact of their words and actions

Multiple copies of Sister Anne's Hands (Lorbiecki, 1998) or The Skin I'm In (Flake, 1998) would prove to be effective choices as a venue for discovering how students come to understand bullying. In the picture book, Sister Anne's Hands, (Lorbiecki, 1998), ideal for elementary aged readers, Sister Anne arrives in the small town in the 1960s to teach second grade. One student sends a paper airplane across Sister Anne's desk that contains a racially slurred poem. Sister Anne tries to teach her students about racial injustice and acceptance of all people. A wonderful chapter book for middle school students is The Skin I'm In (Flake, 1998). Maleeka, a young adolescent girl growing up in an urban city, is forced by peers to feel uncomfortable about the color of her dark skin. She meets a new teacher at her school with a birthmark on her face that helps Maleeka discover who she is and who she can be as a person.

Quickwrites

Written responses serve as data to document what students are thinking and how their thought process may be evolving and changing. Popularized by Peter Elbow (1973) quickwrites are an excellent writing strategy for generating ideas, activating schemata, fostering learning, and bringing ideas from a subconscious level to a conscious level. During a quickwrite, students briefly (three to four minutes) write in response to a given topic; jotting down connected sentences or phrases without stopping to analyze or correct them. Informal assessments such as freewrites can help teachers track students feelings and understanding of tolerance and each another.

Teachers may choose to have students quickwrite during and after a read aloud or a literature circle experience. Basket Moon (Ray, 1999). This picture book, appropriate for upper primary students, contains a powerful message of a young boy who experiences ridicule for the first time. The author has created powerful characters that immediately draw the reader into the story. Students can be directed to stop at certain points in the story and write their reaction to the plot or what they believe they would do under similar circumstances. The quickwrites can be used to foster class discussion or the teacher may choose to design a future lesson based on students' responses.

Grand Conversations

Grand conversations allow children to reflect on their feelings and deepen their understanding and connections to a text. Unlike a traditional question/answer format where the teacher prepares and asks questions to determine a students' initial level of comprehension, a grand conversation is a discussion or dialogue where there is an exchange of ideas (Eeds & Wells, 1989). Children do not cite facts about the text, but they are encouraged to freely express themselves sharing personal connections, thoughts, feelings, and questions. Through the conversation and comments from other members of the discussion group, students become readers who develop the ability to think critically and deeply about texts (Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988).

For example, One Belfast Boy (McMahon, 2000), suitable for upper elementary, is a photo-essay that chronicles the life of an eleven-year-old Catholic boy who lives in Belfast, Ireland. The captivating photographs of the young boy and his life are meaningful images of the difficulties and hardships some children endure. Historical background about the conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland is incorporated throughout the text. This text provides rich material for in-depth conversations centering on acceptance of others. The dialogue with peers offers several benefits. First, students realize they are not alone. It is not unusual for students to believe their personal situation and emotions are unique to them and never recognize that others may find themselves in similar circumstances. There is comfort in belonging to a peer group with like issues and talking about feelings and scenarios provides students the opportunity to brainstorm acceptable reactions to difficult situations. Through grand conversations, students can begin to build a repertoire of non-violent physical and verbal responses towards acts of intimidation.

The title character Wesley in Weslandia (Fleischman, 1999) is the class misfit and often the target of the schoolyard bullies. The whimsical illustrations in this picture book appropriate for all elementary grades dipict the new land Wesley creates to escape his tormentors are colorful and provide for rich discussion. Students can also brainstorm possible alternate solutions to Wesley's problem as well as talk about the story's ending. Students benefit from a collective debriefing session involving both teachers and peers concerning discoveries made during grand conversations. Teachers must provide explicit instruction, modeling, and ample opportunity for practice in order for grand conversations to be effective. During a grand conversation it becomes the responsibility of the teacher to ensure that all the students' voices are heard and valued. The discussion should not become a place where students may feel intimated or disenfranchised.

Role Playing in Critical Response

Helping students understand another person's point of view in response to bullying, violent outbreaks, or stressful social situations is powerful. One possible venue to achieve this is to have students discuss in small groups a character's actions through the lens of an outside force. For example, a student may examine a given situation in a text from a police officer, school administrator, parent, or victim's point of view.

Next, students are invited to role play a scene from the alternative point of view either by physically acting it out or, in a more subdued fashion, using only their voices. This approach allows students to critically analyze a situation within the text while pushing the boundaries of their own schemata. After a careful examination and discussion of other people's points of view on bullying and related subject matter, students can express their understanding in a written format. A simple variation of this approach would be to have students write a position statement or letter to a school official, local newspaper, or policy maker centered on the theme of tolerance.

A favorite picture book with a detailed and extensive story line addressing the theme of tolerance is If a Bus Could Talk by Faith Ringgold (1999). In this carefully crafted picture book appropriate for all elementary grades, Marcie boards a bus, pays her fare, and realizes that she is not on a typical bus, but on a bus that talks. The bus explains that this particular bus is the Rosa Parks bus and proceeds to tell Mrs. Park's life story that includes memories of the Ku Klux Klan, segregation, and her very famous stance of not giving up her bus seat. The story also includes many other examples of racial injustice that are less common, but integrally woven throughout the text. For upper elementary and middle school students, we suggest the chapter book, Speed of Light, (Rosen, 1999) set eleven years after World War II. Audrey and her family, some of whom are holocaust survivors, relive the danger and hate experienced by Jews at the hands of Hitler. The question remains: Is the hatred rooted in their religious origin or because Audrey's father chose to help a black man enter the police force in their once peaceful southern town?

Closing Thoughts

Literature with a non-violent theme can be massaged and seamlessly integrated into classroom curriculums. Reader response theory in conjunction with authentic reading methods will invite students to examine commonalities between themselves, the characters they read about, and the people with whom they interact. Clearly, introducing literature concerning tolerance leading to conflict resolution will not magically resolve all issues of violence, but it certainly could begin fascinating and engaging dialogues.

References

Balter, L. (Ed.). (2000). Parenthood in America an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

Beach, R. (1993). A teacher's introduction to reader response theories. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Coglan, R. (2000). "The teaching of anti-violence strategies within the English curriculum." English Journal(89), 5, 84-94.

Daniels, H. (1994). Literature circles voice and choice in the student-centered classroom. York, ME: Stenhouse.

Eeds, M. & Wells, D. (1989). "Grand conversations: An exploration of meaning construction in literature study groups." Research in the Teaching of English, (23), 4-29.

Elbow, P. (1973). Writing without teachers. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Flake, S.G. (1998). The skin I'm in. New York: Hyperion Books for Children.

Fleischman, P. (1999). Weslandia. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick.

Harste, J. C., Short, K. G., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors the reading-writing connection. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Lorbiecki, M. (1998). Sister Anne's hands. New York: Dial Books for Young Readers.

Ma, X. (2001). "Bully and being bullied: To what extent are bullies also victims?" American Educational Research Journal, (38), 351-370.

McMahon, P. (2000). One Belfast boy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 

Pellegrini, A.D. & Bartini, M. (2000). "A longitudinal study of bullying, victimization, and peer affiliation during the transition from primary school to middle school." American Educational Research Journal, 37, 699-725.

Ray, M. L. (1999). Basket moon. Boston: Little Brown

Ringgold, F. (1999). If a bus could talk: The story of Rosa Parks. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers.

Rosen, S. (1999). Speed of light. New York: Aladdin Paperbooks.

Rosenblatt, L. (1995). Literature as exploration. (5th ed.), New York: The Modern Language Association of America.

Spinelli, J. (2003). Loser. New York: Alfred A. Knopt.

Spinelli, J. (2000). Stargirl. New York: HarperCollins.

Tompkins, G. E. (2003). Literacy for the 21st Century: A Balanced Approach (3rd ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Prentice Hall.

Onofrey is an assistant professor in the Department of Elementary Education at Arizona State University West where she teaches courses in language and literacy. Theurer is an assistant professor and Director of Graduate Studies in Reading in the Department of Teacher Education at California State University, Long Beach where she teaches literacy courses.