Use of colour and interactive animation in learning 3D vectors.

This study investigated the effects of two computer-implemented techniques (colour and interactive animation) on learning 3D vectors. The participants were 43 female Saudi Arabian high school students. They were pre-tested on 3D vectors using a paper questionnaire that consisted of calculation and visualization types of questions. The students were then divided into four groups. Each group was allocated to a different version of software for learning 3D vectors. The versions differed in their use of colour/greyscale and static images/interactive animation. After the participants used the software, a post-test was administered. All students improved their overall test scores, with no significant difference between the groups. However, test scores on the visualization questions differed noticeably, with the groups viewing animated versions scoring higher than the groups seeing static versions.

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INTRODUCTION

As computers have moved from laboratories to classrooms and homes, much research has done to investigate how useful they can be for educational purposes. Since computer software can be a potent tool, it is important to study which techniques are best in order to exploit the contributions that computers can make to the learning experience. In particular, computers can be used for a variety of multimedia techniques, and it is important to characterize the circumstances of their successful use.

Early research compared graphics to text-only instruction. For example, Pressley (1977) found that graphics increased the amount learned by children, and Alesandirini (1984) found that the same is true for adults. There has been less research into the use of animation, because the skills and equipment required were scarce in the early days of computers. Fortunately, today animation can be more easily created using inexpensive user-friendly software that is available for this purpose.

Baek and Layne (1988) compared the learning experiences of text only, text plus graphics, and text plus animation. The animation group required less study time and learned more. The same results were found in a study by Mayton (1991).

Rieber and Boyce (1990) compared animation-based instruction with carefully designed verbal presentations, and found that the animation did not result in a greater quantity learned, but did result in less time required to retrieve information.

Poohkay (1994) studied mathematical learning by comparing three forms of instruction (animation, still graphics, and text-only) by using a compass to create triangles from given line segments. The results showed that students who learned from the animated lesson scored significantly higher than those who used the graphics lesson, who in turn scored significantly higher than those using the text-only lesson.

The use of colour is a technique with more varied results. Several studies, such as Wise (1982) and Dwyer (1967, 1968, 1970), have suggested that colour can be a neutral cue to learning, but can also be distracting if poorly used. However, Dwyer (1978) showed that colour can help when it is an integral part of the material being learned; Szabo and Poohkay (1994) noted that educators often perceive colour to provide a positive motivational influence.

In Saudi Arabia, the use of computers at girls' schools is in its infancy. Educators are working hard to introduce computers to all students and to put the machines to good educational use. Some opinions from individual Saudi teachers given to the researchers suggested that many students struggle with learning 3D vectors; it was felt that computers might be of use in helping to present such material. This study looks at two techniques for the production of educational mathematics software for learning 3D vectors--colour and interactive animation.

METHOD

Participants

The study was conducted at the University Private Girls' High School in the city of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Within the school, there were two classes of students (43 girls in all) who participated in the study. The students were approximately 17 years old and all were experienced computer users with the same mathematical background. Both classes were taught mathematics by the same teacher.

Software

The software was designed and constructed especially for the study. It was implemented as a collection of Web pages viewed using a standard Web browser, and required only simple straightforward mouse movements to operate. In addition, it was designed to comply with good practice human-computer interaction guidelines. During its construction, several usability tests were used to improve the design.

The 3D vector material was structured with a main menu linking to short lessons on core 3D vector topics. The lesson content was similar to that found in mathematics textbooks, with pictures accompanied by formulae and Arabic explanations, as in Figure 1.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Four versions of the software were created:

1. Colour and interactive animation

2. Non-colour and interactive animation

3. Colour and static images

4. Non-colour and static images

Colour

The colours used for versions 1 and 3 were carefully chosen, in accordance with good design guidelines. The foreground/background contrasts were strongly dark/light; no colours with inappropriate cultural associations were used. Instead, colours were chosen to give the impression of being cheerful and interesting, but without a garish effect. Versions 2 and 4 were black and white (greyscale) versions of versions 1 and 3, respectively. They were identical in all other respects.

Animation

The interactive animation used in versions 1 and 2 consisted of simulations showing the 3D nature of the vectors, which could be rotated and zoomed using the mouse. This was implemented using a LiveMath plugin (see references). In contrast, versions 3 and 4 used static images, which were screenshots of the LiveMath animations, chosen to give a clear view.

Procedures

Initially, all 43 students took a multiple choice pre-test, which contained a mixture of calculation and visualization questions on 3D vectors. One sample visualization question can be seen in Figure 2.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Subsequently, the students were randomly allocated into one of four groups (one for each version of the software) such that all groups were of approximately the same size and average ability.

One week later, during which no lessons on 3D vectors were taught, students attended one of four separate sessions in the school's computer laboratory, according to group. Each student viewed the software at her own pace, and saw only the version of the software for her group.

After viewing the software, the students were given a post-test in 3D vectors, similar in structure and difficulty level to the pre-test. Students were also given a questionnaire, which was designed to explore attitudes towards the use of computers in learning mathematics, in particular the topics of graphics and colour. The tests and questionnaire were in Arabic.

Further details of the methodology are contained in Iskander (2003).

Results

Test Scores

Viewing the software resulted in a significant difference (t-test, p < 0.001) in test scores from all four groups; the average score on the post-test was 10.63, compared to an average pre-test score of 7.43 (there were 13 questions overall).

A 2 X 2 (interactivity X colour) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the differences between scores (post-test minus pre-test); no effects that resulted from either the interactivity or colour were detectable. Groups 1 and 2 (interactive animation) had a mean score improvement of 3.27, compared to 3.14 for groups 3 and 4 (static images); groups 1 and 3 (colour) had a mean improvement of 3.23, compared to 3.19 for groups 2 and 4 (greyscale).

Four of the test questions concerned visualizing vectors. When the results on only these four questions were considered, a 2 X 2 (interactivity X colour) analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that although no effect resulting from colour was detectable, there was a small difference (p = 0.16) according to interactivity (see Table 1).

Questionnaire Analysis

The questionnaire tested the students' attitude towards computers and the software. None of the students disliked the software and none disagreed with the statement "the software is easy to use." According to the questionnaire, 69% of the students thought that the software encouraged them to learn, and 67% of the students liked using computers to learn mathematics.

Of the students who saw colour versions of the software, none disliked the choice of colours. In comparison, all the students who saw greyscale versions of the software indicated that they would prefer the software to be more colourful.

All students who used the interactive versions were neutral or positive about the animation and 3D figures. In contrast, 86% of the students who saw the static images thought that they would learn better from 3D representations of vectors.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we explored the differences from the use of colour and interactive animation in software for learning about 3D vectors. Although it is reassuring to note that students' scores improved immediately after viewing the software, the purpose of the study was not to compare use of the software with some other form of teaching (no control groups were used). Therefore, this result does not address the effectiveness of the various versions of the software.

The questionnaire results showed that these Saudi Arabian students perceived the software positively and were motivated by colour, interaction, and the use of computers. It is important that students feel motivated by and comfortable with their learning facilities. However, their learning is another matter.

There were no significant differences from either colour or interactive animation in mean score improvements among the four groups. While the observed non-effect of colour supports previous research suggesting that colour is a neutral cue to learning, the observed non-effect of interactive animation may be more surprising. Examination of the visualization-only questions (on which students viewing interactive software might be expected to produce better results) reveals that there was a small positive effect of the interactive animation, but that this was not significant. It appears that, in order to completely test the hypothesis that interactive animation has a positive effect on learning 3D vectors, it would be beneficial to undertake a similar study using a greater number of students and with greater attention paid to the visualization questions.

Table 1 Mean Score Improvements for the Four Visualization Questions

                         Colour  Greyscale

                         1.182   1.091
Animated Interaction
                         n=11    n=11
                         0.909   0.700
Static
                         n=11    n=10

References

Alesandirini, K. (1984). Pictures and adult learning. Instructional Science, 13, 63-77.

Baek, Y., & Layn, B. (1988). Color, graphics, and animation in a computer-as-sisted learning tutorial lesson. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 15, 131-135.

Dwyer, F. M. (1967). Adapting visual illustrations for effective learning. Harvard Educational Review, 37, 250-263.

Dwyer, F. M. (1968). Effect of visual stimuli on varied learning objectives. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 27, 1067-1070.

Dwyer, F. M. (1970). Exploratory studies in the effectiveness of visual illustrations. AV Communication Review, 18, 235-247.

Dwyer, F. M. (1978). Strategies for improving visual learning. State College, PA: Learning Services.

Iskander, W. (2003). An application of computer-based visualization techniques to mathematics software. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Stirling, UK.

LiveMath [Computer software]. Retrieved January 10, 2003 from http://www.livemath.com/

Mayton, G. B. (1991). Learning dynamic processes from animated visuals in microcomputer based instruction. Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED334999)

Poohkay, B. (1994). Effects of computer-displayed animation on achievement and attitude in mathematics computer based instruction. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Alberta.

Pressley, B. (1977). Imagery and children's learning: putting the picture in developmental perspective. Review of Educational Research, 47, 585-662.

Rieber, L., & Boyce, M. (1990). The effects of computer animation on adults learning and retrieval tasks. Journal of Computer Based Instruction, 17, 46-52.

Szabo, M., & Poohkay, B. (1994). So what if it's in color and moves? A critique of multimedia. World Conference on Ed-Media/EdTelecomm 94, Vancouver, Canada.

Wise, R. E. (1982). The differential employment of cognitive skills as a function of increasing iconic stimulus complexity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Educational Communications and Technology, Research and Theory Division, Dallas, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED223206)

WEJDAN ISKANDER

University of Stirling

UK

[e-mail]

SHARON CURTIS

Oxford Brookes University 

UK

[e-mail]