Use of adventure-based counseling programs for persons with disabilities.

Adventure-based counseling programs offer unique opportunities to promote positive growth and change for persons with disabilities. A review of the literature is described which explains this intervention, a rationale for using adventure-based programs, research to support its efficacy, and resources to help rehabilitation clients and professionals to obtain further information concerning these programs.

Day 3 -- I have been walking for over two hours. My feet are hurting. It is around 35[degrees]. When you're in the mountains it gets pretty cold (even in late August). Yes, I remember people telling me this fact but it is a different matter now than I am here. It continues to drizzle (dare I say rain) this morning. My backpack that holds my clothes, camping equipment, and some of the group's food for the next few days seems to get heavier by the minute. Still, I have thoroughly enjoyed this hike. There are times, however, when I feel like quitting this "adventure." It helps me to continue when I think about the efforts that some of the other people have made especially those with less physical skills than I. I am feeling quite nervous about rock climbing tomorrow and the "high ropes course" in a few days. Am I really up to it? What happens if I can't do it? One week ago I was sitting at home reading National Geographic (that was the extent of my "outdoor adventures"). How does my experience compare with the other nine members who have joined me on this trek? What have I learned so far? I am becoming more aware of how I impose my standards on others and how sometimes it is difficult for me to step back and let others learn in their own way. This insight and the lessons from it seem so simple yet so hard to practice. So, we go on ... sloshing down this wooded trail while singing, of all things -- Christmas Carols!

Therapeutic benefits from being with others in the outdoors facing unfamiliar challenges may be evident in this personal log passage. It provides a glimpse of what might occur for someone participating in an adventure-based counseling program. Adventure-base counseling is a treatment intervention for rehabilitation clients, their families, and professionals which may be considered an adjunct to other rehabilitation efforts. Since little information has been written in the mainstream rehabilitation journals, a brief background as to the merits of adventure-based counseling and a description of the qualities that characterize adventure-based counseling will be examined. A review of the literature concerning therapeutic benefits of participating in adventure-based counseling programs is offered.

Historical Influences of Adventure-based Counseling

In order to understand the philosophy of adventure-based counseling, it is important to recognize the early influences of three pre-eminent educational leaders -- William James, John Dewey, and Kurt Hahn. These men believed strongly that new learning and behavior change were a result of direct experience. James, in outlining his principles of experiential education, stated that persons learn best by their own activities (James, 1900). His moral philosophy provided an ethical framework for experiential education that was based on these four propositions: (1) Each person is capable of making free choices which lead to action and, as a result, each person is responsible for the consequences of such action; (2) Truth is developed by reflecting upon the consequences of one's and others' actions; (3) To become fully human, one must actively engage others in the natural environment; and (4) To become a truly mature person, one must sacrifice personal comfort and challenge dehumanizing aspects of the world through direct action. This action is taken for the purpose of creating a better world (Page, 1987).

Dewey's critique of educational practices offered that effective learning was a function of two principles -- the principle of interaction and the principle of continuity. The educational process was not something done to someone. Rather, it required an active dialogue between teacher and student to evaluate the impact of experience on learning. The learner assumes a primary responsibility that directs learning activities. These learning experiences must therefore be carefully conceived before implementing them. If the impact of learning is successful, present learning experiences should "live fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experiences" (Dewey, 1938, p. 28). Dewey posited that reflection is necessary to understand experiences so that its meaning could be better understood. Experiential contact alone was insufficient and required a secondary experience or what Dewey referred to a reflective experience if learning occurred (Hunt, 1981).

Hahn not only valued experienced-centered education as evident in the teachings of James and Dewey but stressed the importance of impacting on one's values as well. A central premise of his teachings was that certain experiences could spontaneously produce positive social values that developed character and maturity (Kimball & Bacon, 1993). Hahn believed that the school curriculum should include on-site experiences within the community. He contended that adventure was critical to learning and that education should not only teach basic skills but provide opportunities to develop moral responsibility (Kraft, 1985). Hahn is perhaps best known for the development of "Outward Bound," a program designed to help British seamen survive the dangers associated with sailing during World War II. Since this early beginning, Outward Bound has flourished throughout the United States and has been adapted to a variety of settings including business, education, enrichment, health care, judicial, leadership and training, and mental health fields (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994).

As evident from these influences, the importance of experience and its meaning to each person, the freedom to make choices while taking responsibility for their consequences, the importance of interacting with others for the purpose of improving the quality of life for all, the requirement that learning requires a time for reflection, and that learning represents more than acquiring knowledge are important philosophical underpinnings that influence how adventure-based counseling programs are developed, conducted, and evaluated.

Describing Adventure-based Counseling

In examining the adventure-based and recreational literature, there are a number of terms associated with using the outdoors therapeutically to facilitate individual growth and change. These terms include adventure therapy (Gass, 1993), camping therapy (Lowry, 1974), high adventure, natural challenge activities, outdoor pursuits, and risk education (Ewert, 1989), and wilderness therapy (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994). Although there is commonalty with respect to intervention methods, settings, and philosophies, differences in terminology have more to do with functional aspects such as the degree of wilderness remoteness, length of program, proximity to therapeutic facility of the client, and "contrived" versus natural obstacles experienced by participants (Gass, 1993).

Adventure-based programs are usually conducted in remote outdoor settings, although they can exist in urban settings as well (e.g., Levine, 1978). Activities such as backpacking, biking, camping, canoeing, caving, high or low ropes course initiatives, hiking, orienteering (navigating using a compass), rock climbing, repelling on vertical cliffs, community service projects, and individual and group problem solving activities are the kinds of activities often found in adventure-based programs. Many of these activities have been used for recreational purposes with a variety of clientele including persons with long-term mental illness (Banaka & Young, 1985; Berman & Anton, 1988; McClung, 1984; Stich & Senior, 1984), mental retardation (Dillenschneider, 1983), substance abuse (Gass & McPhee, 1990; Stich & Gaylor, 1983), and hearing impairments (Luckner, 1988). Participation in these activities alone does not constitute adventure-based counseling. Certainly, any of these adventure activities can be used for a variety of educational, physical fitness, recreation, and counseling purposes (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988). A critical difference between simply participating in adventure activities as a recreational endeavor and doing so within an adventure-based counseling context is that, in the latter case, activities are conducted for tile purpose of creating individual therapeutic change (Stich, 1983). In addition, adventure activities are designed for the purpose of focusing on one's behavior and, if necessary, changing it Rohnke, 1989).

When providing adventure-based activities, it is critical that the sequence of activities be carefully planned so that specific intended therapeutic objectives from each activity are realized. This characteristic is one of the most important concerns when providing adventure-based programs (Bisson, 1995; Rohnke & Butler, 1995). Six additional qualities described by Schoel et al. (1988) also characterize adventure-based counseling which includes: (a) establishing individual and group goals, (b) building trust among participants, (c) providing activities that challenge and evoke stress, (d) require problem-solving abilities, (e) are fun to do, and (f) culminate in a peak experience.

Characteristics of Adventure-based Counseling

Goal setting. In the adventure-based model, specific goals for each participant must be identified prior to beginning the program. These goals are developed after careful consultation with the referral source and/or each participant. Information as to what the program will entail and what is expected of each participant should already be provided. Group goals are established and the parameters of acceptable behavior are clearly defined in the presence of one another. In adventure-based counseling parlance this is evident in the "full value contract" or "recipe for success". This contract requires agreement that (a) participants work together as a group toward individual and group goals, (b) adhere to safety and group behavior guidelines, and (c) provide/receive feedback that is negative and positive for the purpose of changing behavior when it is appropriate (Schoel et al., 1988). It is designed to promote both physical and psychological safety which serves as a point of reference throughout the adventure program. Once these rules are established, the proposed program agenda is shared with participants. The degree of disclosure concerning the agenda and what activities will be used depend upon facilitator, group goals, and individual/group dynamics.

Trust building. Trust building becomes a critical element in adventure-based counseling since all therapeutic relationships must work from a basic framework of trust. Because certain physical activities require greater degrees of emotional and physical trust, this process must be built gradually. For example, standing on a platform several feet off the ground and falling backwards into the supportive arms of others requires greater trust than closing your eyes and leaning back slightly with another person's arms to support you. Not only do these activities require different degrees of physical trust but, in a parallel manner, physical trust must be experienced before developing more complex intra/interpersonal trust (Schoel et al., 1988).

Challenge/stress. The fact that adventure activities are conducted in environments that most persons do not typically experience on a day-to-day basis usually results in stress. Although many persons may have been overnight camping, it is quite another experience to live in the woods for days at a time without the accessibility of modem conveniences. Further, the physical and emotional challenges to work together in achieving a successful wilderness experience will depend, in large part, as to how the group deals with stress. Depending on the unique goals of individual programs, adventure-based counseling initiatives can vary greatly in the amount of perceived risks. The important aspect to underscore is that it is the perceived versus actual risk that is evident in adventure activities. For instance, an individual may experience a great deal of stress while scaling up a 30' climbing wall. The fact that the individual is securely supported with a climbing harness and several "belayers" (persons who hold onto the climber's rope and harness) may not reduce initial feelings of stress, however.

Stressful experiences that are likely to occur throughout an adventure-based program serve as an impetus for individual change. This belief is predicated on the premise that behavioral change occurs when people are placed outside of a position of comfort and into states of dissonance (Gass, 1993). In order to achieve equilibrium, persons are challenged to make necessary adaptations. These adaptations or challenges are specifically designed to foster capability and success while counteracting feelings of low self-worth, learned helplessness, and dependency (Kimball & Bacon, 1993).

As with all activities, the decision to engage in a particular activity and level of individual accomplishment should be couched by a "challenge by choice" philosophy. To goad or guilt someone in participating in an activity is not consistent with adventure-based counseling philosophy. It is the realization that persons challenge themselves and, in doing so, (re)learn something about themselves. It is not important how high one scales up a climbing wall, how far one can hike in a day, or how fast one paddles a canoe. As an example, perhaps putting on a climbing harness and standing at the base of a rock climb may represent a formidable challenge for some; for others, getting half-way or ascending all the way to the top of climb may be the desired goal. Adventure-based work recognizes that it is the effort to overcome obstacles and, in effect, overcoming one's own fears that is critical. Further, this type of program teaches participants that an important aspect of achieving success is not about competition with one another but rather cooperation with one another.

Problem solving. The adventure-based curriculum involves a series of incremental challenges in difficulty where participants must rely on one another to persevere. Each activity provides concrete problems that have a clear beginning and ending. Although problems may be solved in a number of ways, if the group is successful, all members play a role in solving and completing the task. For example, one activity called the "Spider's Web" (Rohnke, 1984) requires individual members to go through one of several openings in a large "web" (a configuration of string that is tied together at ground level usually suspended between two trees or Poles that form a variety of shapes). Holes vary in size and shape and no one must touch the web while being passed through it (otherwise. a consequence may be that the entire group starts over). Only one person may go through each hole and, once through, the hole is closed off to the remaining participants. Given these parameters, the group must address a number of problems: Who is to go where? How are we going to safely pass one another through the web? How do we decide the order of the group as to who is first and who is last? What steps will we take to avoid touching the, web? How do we accommodate persons of varying physical abilities? All of these questions require the group to discuss various strategies, implement one and, if not successful, regroup and modify the initial strategy or adopt a different one. As might be evident from this description, this activity provides opportunity to examine leadership styles, trust issues, risk-taking behaviors, communication skills as well as problem solving abilities.

Problem-solving as applied to integrated programs that include persons with varying cognitive, emotional, and physical abilities provide real opportunities to examine perceptions regarding ability issues. Although there is some question as to how persons with severe physical challenges can participate in outdoor adventure-based activities (e.g., Asher, Huffaker, & McNally, 1994), it is nonetheless true that these individuals are becoming increasingly involved in adventure programs (Sugerman, 1995). As a result of the Americans with Disabilities Act, adventure-based programs must provide programs that have a "universal" design that is accessible (Sugarman, 1993). This design approach not only reflects legal mandates but, as Terry and Terry (1995) contend, "Universal programming bases success on group goals such as cooperation and listening, not on physical abilities. It reemphasizes the fact that experiential/adventure activities are about emotional and intellectual challenges" (p. 259). Universal programming also means that while challenges will not be the same for each participant, they will be available to everyone (Terry, 1995). While it is certainly true that architectural barriers do exist in adventure programs, for the most part, the largest barrier for creating a universal design and accessible program has more to do with attitudinal concerns of the professional staff who conduct these programs (Havens, 1992). Programs that offer integrated groups of persons with varying abilities provide the best opportunity to challenge stereotypes and preconceptions and develop new learning paradigms about the capabilities of others.

Fun. Adventure-based programs provide numerous opportunities for fun. While it is true that many activities are designed to be enjoyable, there is an embedded philosophy that learning is best when it is fun. Laughter at oneself can be a very healthy way of dealing with stressful situations. It is also a great way of bringing people together. Many group activities during the adventure-based counseling initiation phase are simply intended to be fun so that people may get acquainted with one another. There are a number of resources found in the reference section and a list of additional readings for persons who want to use activities that are fun to do and promote a sense of team building. These activities are often used during the initiation phase of adventure-based programs and are wonderful "ice-breakers."

Peak experience. The peak experience, as the term implies, represents a critical part of the adventure-based counseling program and, in many instances, provides a culmination to the program. The purpose of the peak experience is to provide an opportunity to practice all of the learning that has occurred and apply it to this one intensive challenge. As Bisson (1995) stated, "[during the peak experience] ... challenges become more intense, more committing. Suddenly the participants have to help, trust and cooperate, not just to overcome an artificial problem but to accomplish something much more complex" (p. 19). These experiences can be very uplifting and, according to Schoel et al. (1988), result in "acute-identity experiences" (p. 20) that culminate in positive growth.

Therapeutic Benefits of Adventure-Based

Counseling Programs

A number of benefits for persons with disabilities who have participated in adventure-based counseling and related programs have been reported in the experiential education and therapeutic recreation literature. These findings include more favorable attitudes toward disability for both persons with and without disabilities (McAvoy, Schatz, Stutz, Schlein, & Lais, 1989), improvements in independent living skills and positive self-concept changes among persons with developmental disabilities (Carter & Foret, 1990; Zemke, Knuth, & Chase, 1984), enhancement of self image, sense of responsibility, and cooperative learning among persons with various disabilities (Rudolph & Luckner, 1986), abstinence from alcohol and other drugs (Kennedy & Minami, 1993) coupled with greater life satisfaction among persons in addiction recovery (McPeake, Kennedy, Grossman, & Beaulieu, 1990), reduction in subsequent incarceration (Castellano & Soderstrom, 1992) and drug and alcohol abuse among ex-offenders with serious mental health issues (Cytrynbaum and Ken as cited in Wichmann, 1983), increased self-efficacy, self-confidence, and improvement in social skills among visually impaired individuals (Stuckey & Barkus, 1986), persons with long-term mental illness (Roland, Summers, Friedman, Barton, & McCarthy, 1987), and persons with various physical disabilities (Austin, 1987; Robb & Evert, 1987), increased self esteem among persons with long-term mental illness (Davis-berman & Berman, 1989; Kaplan, 1974), improvements in family relationships having a member with a physical disability (Roland, Dunham, Hoyt, & Havens, 1986), positive changes in body image and coping mechanisms for persons with bulimia nervosa (Maguire & Priest, 1994), and amelioration with intimacy and trust issues for survivors of sexual assault Levine, 1994).

Participation in an adventure-based program has also been used as an assessment technique in obtaining information about one's personality. Kimball (1983) described how a wilderness adventure program was similar to a projective test because it provided a composite of the person's global personality. Careful observation of a person's responses to the challenges required in an outdoor adventure program provides information concerning "life-long behavioral patterns, dysfunctional ways of coping with stress, intellectual processes, conflicts, needs and emotional responsiveness" (p. 6).

In accounting for why adventure-based counseling programs result in positive individual change such as those mentioned previously, based on his work with adjudicated youth, Golins (1978) offered a number of reasons that seem applicable to all kinds of participant groups. According to Golins, adventure-based programs offer a "gamelike atmosphere" and, as a result, people may be more willing to participate and reveal themselves. In comparison, traditional individual or group counseling methods may be particularly threatening for persons who have difficulty expressing themselves verbally and/or establishing new relationships. Golins contended that the impact of "games" should not be underestimated and if used properly can offer experiences that are "absorbing, engulfing, [and] enlightening" (p. 27). Adventure-based activities usually result in creating a less threatening atmosphere for social interaction because it requires a peer group to accentuate individual strengths and minimize weaknesses. According to the author, "... everyone counts, everyone is needed to share the burdens of getting through the experience in one piece. There is a common objective and a collective consciousness" (p. 28). Adventure-based counseling therefore embodies an important philosophy -- "Everything and everybody are valuable."

Living together as a group 24 hours a day provides a number of opportunities where both expected and unexpected challenges arise. It also means that facilitators and participants have easy access to one another and therefore relationships are developed more quickly. Spending time with someone over several days versus seeing them once a week for counseling has an advantage of not only building rapport quicker but, in addition, it provides a larger context in getting to know an individual. Finally, because facilitators and participants engage in all of the adventure-based activities together, mutual respect and understanding are qualities developed throughout the program.

Making the Transfer to the "Real World"

One of the major criticisms of adventure-based counseling research is that there is insufficient follow-up data to ascertain whether reported therapeutic benefits are sustained and if they generalize to other life areas (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994; Ewert, 1987). While this criticism is legitimate, Gass (1985) described a number of considerations that would enhance the transfer of learning using adventure activities. These qualities may prove useful to rehabilitation counselors who make referrals to an adventure-based counseling program as well as persons who may wish to participate in these programs. Among important considerations that would facilitate transfer, Gass recommended that programs: (a) provide participants with opportunities to practice transfer learning while still in adventure activities, (b) make sure consequences of learning are natural, not artificial, (c) have the means for persons to internalize their own learning through self-awareness and reflective thinking experiences, (d) include significant others in the participant's program design and follow-up, (e) place more responsibility for learning in the program with each client, (t) develop processing techniques that facilitate learning, and (g) provide follow-up experiences that help transfer to other life areas.

Opportunities for Rehabilitation Counselors

Judging from the limited articles published in mainstream rehabilitation journals, it would appear that adventure-based counseling is something that rehabilitation counselors and their clientele would not have much use for or interest in. Almost all of the literature on adventure-based counseling programs has been published in the experimental education, leisure and recreation, and specific disability journals. For example, a review of the major rehabilitation counseling journals (Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, Journal of Rehabilitation, and Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin) revealed that only one research article in the past 15 years examined the utility of an adventure-based intervention. This article by Luckner (1989) found that adults with hearing impairments who participated in an "outdoor-adventure education course" had a significant shift towards assuming more responsibility for one's actions. There have been a few anecdotal reports in the mainstream rehabilitation literature that have described the use of adventure activities for persons with disabilities, however (e.g., Leung, 1989).

Perhaps the lack of attention of adventure-based counseling programs for people with disabilities should not be surprising given the traditional roles and functions of certified rehabilitation counselors (Rubin et al., 1984), their perceived competencies (e.g., Leahy, Shapson, & Wright, 1987), and pre-professional curricula content for rehabilitation counselors-in-training (e.g., Ebener & Wright, 1991). If one were to extrapolate from these research studies, rehabilitation counselors do not receive exposure or training in "nontraditional" therapeutic interventions such as adventure-based counseling. This does not mean, however, that rehabilitation counselors could not work in settings that offer adventure-based opportunities. On the contrary, adventure-based counseling personnel seem to be in need of consultation regarding accessibility, legislation, and disability awareness training.

Opportunities for consulting on rehabilitation issues would prove valuable to staff who provide adventure-based counseling and ultimately should have a positive effect on making these programs more accessible to persons with disabilities. Although most rehabilitation counselors probably do not have sufficient training in outdoor environmental education, counselors trained in accredited rehabilitation counselor programs do receive training in individual and group counseling theory/techniques as well as medical, psychosocial, and vocational aspects of disability (cf, Council on Rehabilitation Education, 1991). Given this training, rehabilitation counselors could serve as an important resource to adventure-based program staff since most staff who work in these programs come from psychology, social work, mental health education, and therapeutic recreation fields (Berman, Davis-Berman, Itin, & McGowan, 1994). Some authors (e.g., Quinsland, Pomeroy, & Van Ginkel, 1986) underscore the importance of having trained personnel who have the expertise in disability issues and believe that without such, the potential for negative experiences is increased. Given the current background of personnel who provide adventure-based counseling, it seems likely that these individuals have had limited preprofessional training regarding disability issues. This has not been empirically tested, however. Until there is some mandate from a professional group to pursue certification standards of adventure-based counseling personnel, hiring qualifications will remain quite flexible. At present, there seems to be greater interest and support for program accreditation as opposed to individual certification among adventure-based personnel (Bassin, Breault, Fleming, Foell, Neufeld, & Priest, 1992).

Although there is a diversity of credentials and qualifications for persons who facilitate adventure programs, Berman (1995) contends that persons who lead these types of programs should be cross-trained in both adventure therapy and counseling/ psychology. This training would be at the master's level where the person would have an emphasis and practicum in adventure therapy. Counselors-in-training as well as current master's level counselors may wish to consider taking course electives in adventure therapy, experiential education, and/or outdoor education. In order to gain direct experience in the field of adventure-based work, counselors-in-training may wish to complete their internships with persons with disabilities who participate in this type of adventure work. A valuable resource for identifying these programs would be the Directory of Experiential Therapy and Adventure-Based Counseling Programs (Gerstein, n.d.). This directory lists nearly 260 organizations that use "experiential/adventure activities as therapeutic and educational tools" (p. 1).

Conclusion

For rehabilitation counselors and clients who wish to explore this intervention as another tool to facilitate rehabilitation efforts, an earlier editorial by Wood (1983) perhaps expressed it best:

Without expecting miracles, those who introduce `special

populations' to experiences in which they succeed need

the encouragement of knowing that these fragile

beginnings can lead to real growth and development, given

enough, time, patience, nourishment, and cooperating

institutions (p. 5).

Adventure-based counseling is not a panacea for addressing all of the complex challenges which disability presents. Perhaps its greatest contribution as Wood suggested is that it offers a substitution of positive experience for negative experience. It is an experience that results in a strong bond with others that can lead to empowerment so that changes in personal, social, and work aspects occur.

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Roland, C. C., Summers, S., Friedman, M. J., Barton, G. M., & McCarthy, K. (1987). Creation of an experiential challenge program. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 21 (2), 54-63.

Rubin, S. E., Matkin, R. E., Ashley, J., Beardsley, M. M., May, V. R., Onstott, K., & Puckett, E D. (1984). Roles and functions of certified rehabilitation counselors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin-27, 199-224.

Rudolph, S., & Luckner, J. L. (1986). Outward Bound and the disabled: A personalized perspective. Palaestra, 3 (1), 47-50.

Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988). Islands of healing; A guide to adventure based counseling. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure, Inc.

Stich, T. F. (1983). Experiential therapy for psychiatric patients, The Journal of Experiential Education, 6 (3), 23-30.

Stich, T. F., & Gaylor, M. S; (1983). Outward Bound: An innovative patient education program. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED247047)

Stich, T. F., & Senior, N. (1984). Adventure therapy: An innovative treatment for psychiatric patients. New Directions for Mental Health Services, 21, 103-108.

Stuckey, K., & Barkus, C. (1986). Visually impaired scouts meet the Philmont challenge. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 80. 750-751.

Sugarman, D. (1993). The impact of the Americans with Disabilities Act on adventure education programs. The Journal of Experiential Education, 16 (1), 28-30.

Sugerman, D. (1995). Universal programming: Training staff to lead groups that include people with disabilities. Association for Experiential Education Conference Proceedings, November 9-12, (pp 257-258). Lake Geneva, WI: AEE.

Terry, T. (1995). Embracing: Physical diversity in and through corporate adventure training. Unpublished manuscript.

Terry, J., & Terry, T. (1995). Creating universal challenge: Programmatic issues in becoming universal. Association for Experiential Education Conference Proceedings, November 9-12, (pp 259-260). Lake Geneva, WI: AEE.

Wichmann, T. E (1983). Evaluating Outward Bound for delinquent youth. The Journal of Experiential Education, 6 (3), 10-16.

Wood, P. (1983). Miracle workers? No. Positive experiences for special populations? Yes. The Journal of Experiential Education, 6 (3), 3-5.

Zemke, R., Knuth, S., & Chase, J. (1984). Change in self-concepts of children with learning difficulties during a residential camp experience. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 4 (4), 1-12.

Additional Reading and information Concerning

Adventure-based Counseling

Rohnke, K. (1991). Bottomless baggie. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Rohnke, K., & Butler, S. (1995). Quicksilver: Adventure games, initiative problem, trust activities and guide to effective leadership. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Sikes, S. (1995) Feeding the zircon gorilla and other team building activities. Tulsa, OK: Learning Unlimited Corporation.

James T. Herbert, The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Counselor Education, Counseling Psychology, and Rehabilitation Services, 309 CEDAR Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802-3110. This article was supported, in part, by a grant (No. H133F50059) from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR), Department of Education, under the Mary E. Switzer Distinguished Fellowship Award category. The opinions and conclusions expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent policies or an endorsement by NIDRR.