Understanding teachers' conceptions: ICI.

Abstract

Previously language teachers' beliefs regarding the learning and teaching that occurs in actual classroom practice has been frequently described as unique and context specific this study looks at this phenomenon from a different perspective. (1) Background information on second language teachers' conceptions and in-class interactions (2) a categorical framework for understanding second language teachers' conceptions of in-class interactions (ICI) and (3) the relations between these and the learning and teaching that occurs in actual classroom practice is presented.

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Background

In mainstream educational research, teachers' perceptions of their teaching roles and their beliefs regarding teaching and learning are considered to be a powerful influence on the learning environment and have been a focus of investigation for over twenty-five years. In comparison second language (L2) teacher cognition is a relatively new research focus. A recent review of published research lists only 64 studies since 1976 with 47 appearing since 1999, most in the area of English as a Second Language (Borg, 2003). Much of this research has been criticized for its individualized nature, replication difficulties, and for a continued focus on issues that may hinder the implementation of various teaching practices rather than viewing these perceptions as factors themselves (Archer, 2000). Nevertheless calls for a better understanding of these conceptions and how they relate to actual classroom practice are increasingly evident.

Current Interest

Spurring this current interest in L2 teachers' beliefs is a growing trend in L2 studies which views language learning as a social group experience rather than an individual process. Central to this perspective is the importance placed on interactions with others in the language learning process. Because so much learning occurs in the classroom, through activities created by classroom discourse--the spoken interaction between the teacher and the students and between the students themselves--the role of ICI is considered to be particularly important to the formation of learning environments and ultimate shaping of the individual learners' development (Hall & Verplaetse, 2000). Clearly L2 teachers as well as students are active participants in classroom discussions. Yet in the past 20 years of L2 research little effort has gone into understanding these teachers' conceptions of ICI, how these conceptions may influence their teaching practices or the impact these conceptions may have on the language learners themselves (Larsen-Freeman, 2001). The urgency for this type of information is apparent when we consider the ever-increasing numbers of overseas students worldwide that are choosing to study in countries where their second language is spoken.

The Study

This paper presents the results of an ongoing investigation into a framework of categorical descriptions of Australian English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teachers' conceptions of ICI as they occurred in actual lessons. The EAP classroom is well suited for this type of investigation as the overseas students attending these courses share the same motivation that is to increase their language proficiency and learn the academic skills required for admittance into an Australian tertiary institution. In the EAP classroom the learners' second language is not only the subject of study but is also the means by which the teacher and students communicate both socially and culturally with one another. The categorical framework presented was developed from interviews with twenty-one second language teachers teaching in similar situations in terms of subject content and student ability. All the participants had current or very recent experience in teaching students at an upper intermediate to advanced level of English proficiency. Previous language research into different levels of proficiency indicates that it is only students with intermediate or advanced levels of language proficiency that are able to perceive and self-initiate repairs in their L2. Thus teachers of students at these levels were chosen as it is more likely that these L2 learners will discuss their communication difficulties with their teachers (Ellis, 1997; Williams, 1999).

A general criticism of qualitative research into teachers' beliefs is that what teachers say they do is not always evident in actual classroom practice. In this study the process was reversed. The teachers described their experience of a specific lesson and were encouraged not only to report but to reflect on how they perceived learning and teaching in that situation. Data were collected and analyzed using a research approach 'phenomenography' that is particularly useful in describing the range of conceptions that exist in a specific situation, across a group of people. Phenomenography (widely used in Europe and Australia) is specifically concerned with describing phenomena as others see them and describing the variation 'in ways' of experiencing something within an educational context. Interviews were analyzed as a whole with the intention of identifying the conceptions that existed across the group and the variances in 'the ways' the situation was experienced. Once a set of stable categories was identified, the transcripts were analyzed individually and the prominence of each conception within a transcript described. The stability of the categories of description was tested using a rigorous analytical procedure to establish categories and the relationship between categories. A range of five distinct categories of description was described and a pattern of conceptual development that appears to exist in a hierarchical form across the categories emerged.

Conceptual Categories

In developing these categories, terms describing Surface or Deep approaches to teaching and learning were adopted from two well-known categorical frameworks 1. 'Learners of Social Science' (Marton & Booth, 1997)and 2. 'Academics Conceptions of Science Learning and Teaching' (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). The results from the study show similar patters to the conceptual ranges reported in those previous phenomenographic studies. The conceptions identified range from limited to more complete conceptual understandings of the relations between ICI and L2. The descriptions provided in this paper will look at the different ways these teachers perceive ICI:

* Relate to their experience of learning in situation.

* Relate to their experience of teaching in situation.

* Relate to how they experience their role as teacher in situation.

* Relate to what the teacher was trying to teach, termed 'object of study'.

Following these categorical descriptions excerpts from the transcripts that illustrate the conceptions are provided and samples of the hierarchical links between categories discussed.

Conceptual Framework

In (Category A) ICI are viewed as a teaching method utilized by the teacher. ICI are used to transfer information. Learning is viewed as increasing one's knowledge. The teachers' role is that of an informer. Understanding is answering specific questions (either individually, in pairs, groups or as a class as a whole) provided by the teacher based on text or course goals.

In (Category B) ICI are viewed as a teaching method utilized by the teacher and the students themselves. ICI are used to transfer information. The teachers' role is that of an informer. Learning is memorizing and reproducing structures provided by teacher. ICI in groups or pairs provide opportunities for feedback from teacher and peers on individual errors and support the learning process. Object of Study In both categories A and B: ICI, in those specific lessons, were perceived as peripherally related to the object of study in that they were considered as the means by which the information was transferred. ICI themselves were considered to be separate from the subject taught/learned in the lesson.

   Excerpt 1: Ok. I thought that was a really good class ... because I
   felt like I was actually showing the students and they were
   learning. I mean I've been told that getting them involved and
   active learning ... and in groups ... is the way it's done.

In (Category C) ICI are perceived as a teaching method that provides opportunities for group problem solving. The teachers' role is viewed as a provider of information and an expert in a joint learning process. Students through working together will develop and clarify a group concept. Teachers provide materials and students are believed to learn experientially through interacting with others. Learning is acquiring the academic concept presented. Object of Study As in categories A and B in category C, ICI, in those specific lessons, were perceived as separate from the object of study (academic structures). However, these interactions were viewed as a teaching method that supported learning processes in general. In practice the teacher presented information and provided materials for the students to work through together as tasks done in pairs or groups. Grouping and pairing were seen to be particularly beneficial as through this process a group-centered concept would be clarified and then individually applied.

   Excerpt 2: Well, I think it's because the students are given sort of
   a framework for them to be talking. In this case they were given a
   list of pointers and I got them to go into groups together and
   choose the best arguments.... So that they are sort of forced to
   interact with other class members and that's good generally.

In (Category D) ICI with others is the context in which students develop their own concepts of language skill development and academic structures. The teachers' role is to clarify the links between what is learned and the students' real life situation. Learning is viewed as "understanding" and is believed to occur through social interaction with others. Understanding or learning is reported to have occurred when individuals begin to put the pieces together and develop their own conceptions. Both teachers and students initiate topics for in class discussions. Object of Study In category D, ICI, in those specific lessons, were conceived as directly related to the object of study (students develop their own concepts of language skill development and academic structure). ICI could be described as the context in which in-class learning is perceived to occur.

   Excerpt 3: (Reflection on learning through ICI in a group activity)
   ... it's a problem solving exercise. We've been discussing a certain
   text ... I'll give another text of the same type ... ask people to
   evaluate it in terms of the criteria, which we've just been
   discussing on the previous text ... They are working in groups ...
   and what they are doing is they are practicing the kind of seminar
   discussion skills that they'll have to be using I think learning by
   ... doing something yourself interacting personally with a text and
   discussing with other people sort of with students that might have a
   very different point of view to you or (pause) I think that's really
   when accelerated learning takes place. I think it's faster and more
   direct than the kind of standard teaching droning away at the front
   of the classroom.

In (Category E) ICI with others provides a forum where individual conceptions are built upon and changed. The majority of learning is seen to occur outside of class. The teachers' role is to assist students in communicating meaning by looking at ways these conceptions can be applied in academic and non-academic structures. In-class discussion focuses on learning processes. It is believed that by building life skills academic skills will follow. Object of study In category E, ICI, in those specific lessons, were conceived to be the object of study. In-class discussion was perceived as a forum where individual conceptions are built upon and changed. Students' outside experiences were used as a base for in-class discussion and the lesson focus was on improving and communicating meaning within academic and nonacademic structures.

   Excerpt 4: I don't think it's always enough that communication is
   taking place. But I think it's wonderful when communication is
   taking place when people are also searching and hunting for words,
   which they then use with each other.... I see teaching a lot as
   happening in that way sort of guiding or helping them to see ...
   express meaning here and out there with others. (ICI and learning)
   It's the excitement of actually learning and finding out things.
   English is the means ... but it's not just for English it's for
   your self as well. You've got to know who you are where you come
   from and what you are doing.

Hierarchal Form

The L2 classroom is frequently described as highly individual and unique because the external and internal factors that influence the learning environment are often in a state of flux. Thus, it would be accurate to assume that the teachers' conceptions of the learning and teaching that occurs in their individual classrooms would be numerous and somewhat context specific. This investigation, however, has sought to develop an understanding of the variances in ways that a particular factor in L2 language teaching and learning is perceived and practiced. The ways of experiencing these ICI in this situation are limited in number and are not ontogenetic or disconnected from the rest of the group but in fact related in a hierarchical form. A patterned relationship across the range as a whole was evident in a number of ways. Two examples of this are illustrated below. One pattern elucidated in the transcripts deals with students' use of their first language (L1) in these ICI; all teachers reported a belief that L1 use in class should be limited, in the less developed conceptions LI use was viewed as negative and generally discouraged in class whereas those teachers that reported more highly developed conceptions described L1 use as supportive of the learning process when used to explain ideas, concepts or clarify meaning to peers and were more inclined to allow and encourage L1 use in those instances. A similar hierarchical pattern was revealed when all the teachers described the social nature of ICI as 'building rapport". In the less developed conceptions this was limited to the rapport between the teachers and students in the classroom whereas in the more highly developed conceptions rapport was associated with the teaching-learning environment and extended to include social relationships.

Discussion

The social and communicative nature of language distinguishes it in many ways from the teaching and learning of other subjects. The teaching and learning of a second language in particular involves developing cultural knowledge and understanding of the target language community. The diversity of students' backgrounds, variations in L1 and academic content within an EAP context add to the complexity of these experiences. The framework of categorical descriptions presented in this paper does not describe these complexities. It describes the variations in ways that these L2 teachers perceive the relationship of ICI to the teaching and learning of EAP and their own role in the process in a way that is easily accessible to both educators and researchers.

The categories of description add to the existent body of L2 research on teachers' conceptions in that they illustrates consistent reports between what teachers believe and do that parallel previous reports of Surface and Deep approaches to teaching reported in other areas. Consistencies between conceptual development and practice are indicated in how the social natures of the ICI were experienced in actual lessons and reported on by the teachers. Cohesion within categories is evidenced with teachers' reporting similar levels of ICI conceptual development also reporting similar teaching practices. These consistencies of description in the categories are important findings as they infer a relationship between the teachers' conceptual development of ICI and specific teaching practices. Two of the teaching practices described are particularly noteworthy as they are considered to very important factors in second language learning these are (1) the use of learners' first language in the classroom (2) and the development of learners' self-regulation skills through in-class discussion of learners' outside experiences.

Significantly, the stability of the categorical framework is supported through the clear variances that exist between categories as well as the consistencies within categories mentioned above. An example of one such variance between categories is apparent when we examine the different ways the teachers reported how they experienced the object of the study' or the subject of the lesson discussed. The experiences reported not only differed they also appear to follow a hierarchical pattern with ICI reported as being peripheral to, related to and finally the object of study itself. Similar variances between categories of description can be evidenced in the ways the teachers' describe how they experienced (1) the processes of teaching, (2) the process of learning and (3) their own roles within those processes in specific lessons.

The findings from the study presented show some very interesting patterns between this group of EAP teachers' conceptions of ICI, how they conceive of learning and teaching, and the actual classroom practices they adopt. Research into teachers' conceptions of in-class interactions can assist teachers and educators in discovering ways to enhance the teaching-learning environment in the classroom and can also assist in the development of teacher training programs. Future research should look into expanding and refining this conceptual framework across larger groups of teachers and developing similar conceptual frameworks in related areas. Developing an understanding of how teachers' collective conceptions may relate to actual teaching-learning practices is an important area of discovery for all educators.

References

Archer, J. (2000). Teachers' beliefs about successful teaching and learning in English and mathematics. Paper presented at the AARE 2000, University of Sydney, Sydney.

Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe and do. Language Teaching, 36(02), 81-109. Ellis, R. (1997). SLA Research and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Hall, J.K., & Verplaetse, L. S. (Eds.). (2000). Second and Foreign Language Learning Through Classroom Interaction (pp. 1-20). Mahwah, N J: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001). Individual cognitive/affective learner contributions and differential success in second language acquisition. In M. P. Breen (Ed.), Learner Contributions to Language Learning New Directions in Research (pp. 12-43). Essex: Pearson Education

Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and Awareness. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding Learning and Teaching: The Experience in Higher Education. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education.

Williams, J. (1999). Learner-Generated Attention to Form. Language Learning, 49(4), 583-625.

Bunts-Anderson, Ph.D. candidate and lecturer in the Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Australia