Understanding stressors of international students in higher education: what college counselors and personnel need to know.This paper reviews literature related to the international student population found in universities and colleges in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. (U.S.). More specifically, adjustment issues, common stressors, and coping strategies The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. of international students are explored. Multicultural mul·ti·cul·tur·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or including several cultures. 2. Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. counseling issues and the help-seeking behavior of international students are addressed. Methods in which college counselors and personnel can assist international students in achieving a positive experience are also discussed. Finally, suggestions for further research are made. ********** Multicultural Challenge of College Counselors College counselors often need to modify traditional counseling theories and techniques to meet the particular needs of individual clients. Traditionally, psychology and counseling theories have included cultural specific assumptions that contain universal definitions of what constitutes normal behavior. They typically favor individualism individualism Political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom. Modern individualism emerged in Britain with the ideas of Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, and the concept was described by Alexis de Tocqueville as fundamental to the American temper. over the ideals of collectivism collectivism Any of several types of social organization that ascribe central importance to the groups to which individuals belong (e.g., state, nation, ethnic group, or social class). It may be contrasted with individualism. (Sadeghi, Fischer Fi·scher , Hans 1881-1945. German chemist known for his research on the components of blood. He won a 1930 Nobel Prize for his work on the synthesis of hemin. , & House, 2003). Counseling strictly from these theoretical frameworks may not be suitable for those clients who do not hold the beliefs and values espoused by these theories. The notion of universality of counseling theories and techniques has been questioned by many. There may be a need to modify these traditional approaches to include culturally inclusive or specific considerations. While a need for modification of traditional counseling approaches and a mastery of multicultural competencies may exist, mastering the basic premises of traditional counseling competencies may be needed in order to successfully utilize multicultural competencies (Fuertes & Bartolomeo, 2001). With the diversification Diversification A risk management technique that mixes a wide variety of investments within a portfolio. It is designed to minimize the impact of any one security on overall portfolio performance. Notes: Diversification is possibly the greatest way to reduce the risk. of the United States (U.S.), college counselors will inevitably be faced with counseling culturally diverse clients. In order to effectively meet the needs of these clients, college counselors need to step out of the traditional role of a counselor. Becoming competent in multicultural issues, values, and beliefs of diverse clients may aid college counselors when working with a diverse population. Vinson and Neimeyer (2000) suggested an increase in racial identity development may consequently lead to an increase in multicultural counseling competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. . Sue and Sue (2003) discussed the notion of what it means to be a culturally competent counselor. These components included possessing awareness of one's own cultural biases, pursuing knowledge about a client's culture, and actively seeking out skills and techniques that are culturally sensitive. Competency, according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Pedersen (1987), can also include the avoidance of reductionism reductionism(rē·dukˑ·sh  ·niˑ·z in the counseling process. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently , attempts should be made not to substitute cultural stereotypes for the phemenological perspective of each client. The pursuit of cultural competency is an active and indefinite INDEFINITE. That which is undefined; uncertain. INDEFINITE, NUMBER. A number which may be increased or diminished at pleasure. 2. When a corporation is composed of an indefinite number of persons, any number of them consisting of a majority of those one. College counselors who do not challenge, explore, or become aware of their own culturally learned assumptions may not be practicing within the principles of suitable counseling (Pedersen, 1990). The Presence of International Students in Higher Education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. It is reported that in the 2003-2004 school year international students made up 4.3% of U.S. higher education enrollment. That is a total of 572,509 international students enrolled in colleges or universities across the United States. This was a slight decline from the following year where the international student population accounted for 4.6% of higher education enrollment, totaling 586,323 international students (Open Doors, 2004). Nonetheless, the presence of international students in U.S. institutions is prevalent. These students bring both cultural diversity and economic advantages to the U.S. Open The term U.S. Open is applied to "open" United States national championships in a particular sport, in which anybody, amateur or professional, American or non-American may compete. These include:
International Students Adapting to a New Culture Adjustment Issues When coming to the U.S. to study, many international students are faced with an unfamiliar social and educational culture. Consequently, the adjustment issues and the difficulty international students may face when coming to the U.S. are not surprising. A study by Kaczmarek, Matlcok, Merta, Ames Ames, city (1990 pop. 47,198), Story co., central Iowa, on the Skunk River; inc. 1870. Its chief manufactures are electronic, water-analysis, and water-treatment equipment; motor vehicles; construction materials; and machinery. Iowa State Univ. , and Ross Ross , Sir Ronald 1857-1932. British physician. He won a 1902 Nobel Prize for proving that malaria is transmitted to humans by the bite of the mosquito. (1994) suggested that international students appeared to have a more difficult college transition when compared to that of U.S. students. Additionally, they found that these students appeared to experience difficulty seeking assistance when needed. Zahi (2002) found that the most significant adjustment issues international students faced are related to cultural differences, language challenges, and the U.S. educational system. It was reported that issues which were of little concern to international students were those relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc finances, homesickness, and health issues. This is in contrast to research by Ying and Liese (1994), which found that the level of homesickness was the strongest predictor of poor adjustment. While there is a general consensus by many researchers on the bulk of adjustment issues, there are some discrepancies in the magnitude of each. Common Sources of Stress The presence of some type of stress may be an inevitable psychological factor experienced by international students. Language barriers and lack of knowledge of the host culture, and the differences that exist within that culture, are all potential stressors that could be perceived as threatening (Chert chert: see flint. , 1999). Language skills may be a significant source of stress because of the effect they can have on the social and academic performance of a student (Chen, 1999; Zahi, 2002). Chen suggested that lack of English language English language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. proficiency pro·fi·cien·cy n. pl. pro·fi·cien·cies The state or quality of being proficient; competence. Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence may limit a student's desire to seek out social interactions and thus create negative feelings about their ability to be successful in their new environment. Furthermore, language proficiency Language proficiency or linguistic proficiency is the ability of an individual to speak or perform in an acquired language. As theories vary among pedagogues as to what constitutes proficiency[1], there is little consistency as to how different organisations may be such an important factor that it can affect the self-concept self-concept n. An individual's assessment of his or her status on a single trait or on many human dimensions using societal or personal norms as criteria. and self-efficacy self-efficacy (selfˈ-eˑ·fi·k of an international student's performance. This can in turn affect their tendency to seek out social interaction within in the new host culture. Thus, they may not gain useful knowledge that may help them successfully adapt to this new culture. Ways of Reducing Stress Researchers have found that the quality of relationships international students had with faculty, the perceived quality of instruction, and the presence of faculty interest in the student's professional development can all act as a protective function to the mental well-being of students undergoing stress (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992). The presence of some type of social support and how it is perceived by the individual appears to provide mental benefits, particularly in times of stress. Additionally, some international students have indicated that increasing the interaction between international and U.S. students would be helpful (Zahi, 2002). International students in one study reported an increase of positive effects on their levels of distress experienced due to cultural differences when they developed relationships with U.S. students (Kaczmarek et al., 1994). This research could support the idea of mentoring. Not only does it appear that international students could benefit from mentoring programs but U.S. students as well. This can be seen as a reciprocal Bilateral; two-sided; mutual; interchanged. Reciprocal obligations are duties owed by one individual to another and vice versa. A reciprocal contract is one in which the parties enter into mutual agreements. relationship that could aid in cultural awareness and sensitivity by both international and U.S. students (Zahi, 2002). Positive Coping Strategies Much of the research on international students tends to focus heavily on problems they tend to encounter regarding adjustment rather than on what makes an international student's experience in the U.S. a positive one (Tseng & Newton, 2002). While it is certainly important to explore what difficulties these students may experience, it is also of use to identify how they manage to overcome these difficulties. International students in one study reported eight strategies for positive adjustment or maintaining positive well-being: knowing themselves and others, building relationships, expanding their worldview world·view n. In both senses also called Weltanschauung. 1. The overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world. 2. A collection of beliefs about life and the universe held by an individual or a group. , asking for help, developing cultural and social contacts, establishing relationships with advisors and instructors, English proficiency, and letting go of problems (Tseng & Newton, 2002). Other researchers also found that, in general, the population of international students they surveyed were confident in their abilities, experienced overall satisfaction, and utilized the services available to them on their campuses (Parr et al., 1992; Luzzo, Henao, & Wilson, 1990). Parr et al. suggested that international students, who show signs of positive adjustment, should be encouraged to offer help to other students in need. Ultimately, increased awareness of the strategies and factors that may lead to both positive adjustment and experiences for some international students can help college counselors and personnel develop programs or interventions to aid students in achieving this high level of adjustment. Implications for College Counselors and Personnel Multicultural Competency When working with international students, a multicultural perspective that does not espouse to the idea of cultural universality may be most appropriate (Sue & Sue, 2003). Additionally, college counselors should be mindful mind·ful adj. Attentive; heedful: always mindful of family responsibilities. See Synonyms at careful. mind of factors such as the psychological, emotional, and academic concerns that have been found to be common among the experiences of this student population (Chen, 1999; Zahi, 2002). Acounselor's cultural sensitivity is crucial to the success of the counselor and student interaction due to the heterogeneous Not the same. Contrast with homogeneous. heterogeneous - Composed of unrelated parts, different in kind. Often used in the context of distributed systems that may be running different operating systems or network protocols (a heterogeneous network). nature of this student population (Tatar Tatar or Tartar Any member of the Turkic-speaking peoples who today live mainly in west-central Russia east to the Ural Mountains, in Kazakhstan, and in western Siberia. They first appeared as nomadic tribes in northeastern Mongolia in the 5th century. & Horenczyk, 2000). Furthermore, in order to effectively meet the needs of international students, college counselors may need to analyze their own multicultural competency. College counselors who engage in culturally responsive counseling behaviors may be perceived by clients as possessing increased levels of expertness, trustworthiness trustworthiness Ethics A principle in which a person both deserves the trust of others and does not violate that trust , attractiveness, and cultural awareness (Zhang & Dixon, 2001). College counselors may be faced with not only academic and psychological concerns of these students but may need to address the cultural issues that lie within the heterogeneous international student population (Tatar & Horenczyk, 2000). Be Aware of Help-Seeking Behaviors In addition to general knowledge of the common concerns of international students, college counselors need to be aware of the students' tendencies toward seeking help when needed. Results from a study by Zahi (2002) regarding the help-seeking behaviors of international students indicated that they typically prefer to use family and friends as a means of support for personal problems. This may be attributed partly to the lack of understanding of the counseling and student services available on college campuses for international students. Furthermore, the research suggested that these students may not be familiar with the specifics of counseling and for whom it is intended. As a result, some apprehension The seizure and arrest of a person who is suspected of having committed a crime. A reasonable belief of the possibility of imminent injury or death at the hands of another that justifies a person acting in Self-Defense against the potential attack. may be felt in regards to divulging personal information to a stranger, one not of a shared culture. Other research has indicated similar results regarding the likely-hood of international students seeking help from college counseling services (Baloglu, 2000). Friends and parents may be the most important support systems to international students and are thus used in lieu of Instead of; in place of; in substitution of. It does not mean in addition to. traditional counseling. College counselors must be aware of how individuals from various cultures view the expression of emotions and how they are shared (Komiya & Eells, 2001). Utilizing Varies Helping Approaches and Methods Due to the diverse needs of these students, college counseling services should be flexible. Additionally, these services may need to include alternative forms of counseling approaches, such as psycho-educational programs (Komiya & Eells, 2001). Pedersen (1991) suggested that college counselors may need to use less formal methods of counseling such as presentations, discussions, and everyday encounters when working with international students. These students may not always actively turn to traditional counseling services in times of distress, but they can be helped in many ways by providing a variety of services. Providing individual career and academic counseling may help meet the specific desires expressed by some international students for academic and career planning assistance (Leong & Sedlacek, 1989). Offering psycho-educational and prevention services, establishing mentoring programs, providing referral services, and implementing study and academic enhancement skills groups could all be ways in which college counselors could offer support for these students. Positive rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. may be built by having college counselors interact with students in these alternative formats. As a result, students could be less apprehensive to seek counseling services for mental health related problems when needed. Making Use of New Student Orientations New student orientations specifically designed to familiarize international students with the services available may be a way to promote the utilization of these services when needed. Zahi (2002) suggested that college personnel and college counselors design orientation programs so that they specifically address academic and cultural differences. In particular, addressing the cultural differences of the educational structure and expectations of students in the U.S. may be beneficial. Many international students may perceive that significant academic demands are being placed upon them and this can be a source of stress. This perception of the need of academic superiority may be due to a desire to perform at a level that will please the family or because of financial assistance they may receive, potentially requiring specific academic standards (Oropeza, Fitzgibbon, & Baron baron Title of nobility, ranking in modern times immediately below a viscount or a count (in countries without viscounts). The wife of a baron is a baroness. Originally, in the early Middle Ages, the term designated a tenant of whatever rank who held a tenure of barony , 1991). In order to properly address and better equip e·quip tr.v. e·quipped, e·quip·ping, e·quips 1. a. To supply with necessities such as tools or provisions. b. these students to succeed academically in U.S. institutions, the academic differences that exist should be thoroughly addressed. More specifically, when addressing academic differences, it has been suggested that college personnel address the unique demands of a U.S. classroom. This may include the expectation of class participation, group work, and the requirement of oral presentations (Zahi, 2002), all of which could be a potential source of stress and anxiety. The Need for Further Research To effectively ensure a beneficial experience for international students in the U.S., more research needs to be conducted in several areas. Research done on the needs of international students has identified specific needs in the areas of career planning, academic and culture adjustment, and less formal counseling interventions to address emotional and psychological issues (Leong & Sedlacek, 1989; Komiya & Eells, 2001; Pedersen, 1991). While there is research on this topic, the needs of international students should be investigated further. Understanding what needs are of most importance and gaining information on how college counselors and personnel can assist in helping international students meet their particular needs would be of additional research interest(Kaczmarek et al., 1994). Additionally, information gained from this type of research may help colleges and universities in the design process of their international student programs. By proactively addressing the identified common needs of international students, college counselors and personnel can inform these students of the resources available to them. Research has shown that implementing new student Orientation programs on college and university campuses may be of particular use to the international student population (Zahi, 2002). More research on the effectiveness of new student orientation sessions is needed (Pedersen, 1991). Some researchers have also noted that there are unique ways in which international students may seek relief during times of distress. Relief may be sought by utilizing their natural support systems, which can include friends and family (Komiya & Eells, 2001; Zahi, 2002). To better serve the international student population, additional research should address their natural support systems and how these may be used in college counseling services (Pedersen, 1991). Of additional interest are the psychological coping mechanisms coping mechanism Psychiatry Any conscious or unconscious mechanism of adjusting to environmental stress without altering personal goals or purposes these students utilize. Most research tends to focus on deficiencies rather than on positive well-being and the strategies employed to maintain this level of well-being (Tseng & Newton, 2002). Identifying the cognitive, behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. , and emotional strategies these students utilize in adjusting to a new culture in a positive way will provide college counselors and personnel with a better overall understanding of the students they serve. This greater understanding will also provide useful strategies for college counselors and personnel when helping international students adjust to their new learning and living environment. Overall, the research on international students is quite thorough. A need still exists, however, for additional, more recent research. More research on the international student population as well as how college counselors and personnel can better serve them will help aid in the overall success of both international students and the international student programs that serve them. References Baloglu, M. (2000). Expectations of international students from counseling services. ERIC Document 447372. Chen, C.P. (1999).Common stressors among international college students: Research and counseling implications. Journal of College Counseling, 2, 49-67. Fuertes, J.N., & Bartolomeo, M. (2001). Future research directions in the study of counselor multicultural competency. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 29, 3-13. Institute of International Education (2004). International student and total U.S. enrollment. Retrieved June 26, 2005 from http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/?p=49931 Kaczmarek, P. G., Matlock, G., Merta, R., Ames, M. H., & Ross, M. (1994). An assessment of international college student adjustment. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 17, 241-247. Komiya, N., & Eells, G. T. (2001). Predictors of attitudes toward seeking counseling among international students. Journal of College Counseling, 4, 153-60. Leong, F. T., & Sedlacek, W. E. (1989). Academic and career needs of international and United States college students. Journal of College Student Development Journal of College Student Development is an academic journal founded in 1959 and is the official publication of the American College Personnel Association. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide variety of academic fields related to college , 30, 106-111. Luzzo, D. A., Henao, C., & Wilson, M. (1990). An innovative approach to assessing the academic and social needs of international students. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 351-2. Mallinckrodt, B., & Leong, F. T. (1992). International graduate students, stress, and social Support. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 71-78. Oropeza, B. A. C., Fitzgibbon, M., & Baron A. Jr. (1991). Managing mental health crises for foreign college students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69, 280-284. Parr, G., Bradely, L., & Bingi, R. (1992). Concerns and feelings of international students. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 20-25. Pedersen, P. B. (1991). Counseling international students. The Counseling Psychologist psy·chol·o·gist n. A person trained and educated to perform psychological research, testing, and therapy. psychologist , 19, 10-15. Pederson, P. (1990). The constructs of complexity and balance in multicultural counseling theory and practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 68, 550-554. Pederson, P. (1987). Balance in a complex culture: A test of reasonable opposites. Communication & Cognition cognition Act or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. , 20, 375-382. Sadeghi, M., Fischer, J.M., & House, S.G. (2003). Ethical dilemmas An ethical dilemma is a situation that will often involve an apparent conflict between moral imperatives, in which to obey one would result in transgressing another. This is also called an ethical paradox in multicultural counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 31, 179-192. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : John Wiley John Wiley may refer to:
Tatar, M., & Horenczyk, G. (2000). Counseling students on the move: The effects of culture of origin and permanence Permanence law of the Medes and Persians Darius’s execution ordinance; an immutable law. [O.T.: Daniel 6:8–9] leopard’s spots there always, as evilness with evil men. [O.T.: Jeremiah 13:23; Br. Lit. of relocation RELOCATION, Scotch law, contracts. To let again to renew a lease, is called a relocation. 2. When a tenant holds over after the expiration of his lease, with the consent of his landlord, this will amount to a relocation. among international students. Journal of College Counseling, 3, 49-62. Tseng, W. C., & Newton, F. B. (2002). International students' strategies for well- being. College Student Journal, 36, 591-597. Vinson, T. S., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2000). The relationships between racial identity development and multicultural counseling competency. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 28, 177-192. Ying, Y. W., & Liese, L. H. (1994). Initial adjustment of Taiwanese students to the United States. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 25, 466-477. Zhai, L. (2002). Studying international students: Adjustment issues and social support. ERIC Document 474481. Zhang, N., & Dixon, D.N. (2001). Multiculturally responsive counseling: Effects on Asian student's ratings of college counselors. Journal of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 29, 253-263. Monique Olivas, M.A., Counselor, Department of Behavioral Sciences behavioral sciences, n.pl those sciences devoted to the study of human and animal behavior. , English, Languages, and Speech Division, Montgomery College For the community college near Conroe, Texas, see . Montgomery College is the oldest and largest community college in Maryland, U.S. It is located in Montgomery County, MD and divided into three campuses, the largest of which is in Rockville; the other campuses are in Takoma , Conroe, TX. Chi-Sing Li, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, Sam Houston State University Sam Houston State University, (known as SHSU and Sam, for short) founded in 1879, is a public university located in Huntsville, Texas. It is one of the oldest purpose-built institutions for the instruction of teachers west of the Mississippi River and the first such , Huntsville, TX. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Chi-Sing Li at chisingli@shsu.edu. |
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