Understanding complaints and reporting abuse.

What function does complaining serve?

People express dissatisfaction with all kinds of issues, including the weather, traffic, and other people's behaviors. The dominant theory of complaining suggests that those who complain have self focus (being aware of one's internal state); an awareness of a discrepancy; dissatisfaction; and an assessment of the usefulness of complaining. People conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine when to complain. If the benefits outweigh the costs, people will complain. Costs of complaining include negative social consequences (being labeled a whiner and being excluded) and the negative self-concept that ineffective complaining can lead to.

Research shows that some people are more willing to complain than others. People who focus internally (on how they feel and on how situations affect them) tend to complain more. Also, certain situations, emotional states, and experiences can increase complaints (e.g., boredom, anxiety, depression). Research has shown that priming or encouraging positive self concepts decreases dissatisfaction. Agreeable people, described as trusting, noncritical, and helpful, complain less often.

Extroverts have been found to complain more often than introverts because they are more willing to speak up and because they have a sociable orientation. Those who care a lot about what others think of them complain less. Some research indicates that women complain more than men; researchers attribute this finding to women's willingness to self-disclose and to researchers' gender bias. Men are generally more assertive and direct in their complaining than women. Women are more indirect and expressive in their complaints; they tend to complain to outside parties.

Complaining has been found to serve two primary functions: altering others' behaviors and changing one's internal state. Complaining also serves as a catharsis; a method to obtain information about others through their reactions; a method of maintaining personal control; and a call for others to account for their behavior.

Implications for camp

Complaining is something with which all service providers are familiar. Understanding the nature of complaining can help those who complain be the most effective; it can also help those to whom the complaint is addressed. When complaints occur, ask the people who are complaining what they want to achieve. Do they simply need to vent frustrations? Are they feeling out of control? Do they want someone to admit responsibility for the situation? Is the complaint a roundabout method of expressing a desire for changes in another's behavior? By asking these pointed questions, it becomes easier to address the underlying needs of complainants.

Knowing that some people complain more than others can be helpful in sorting through legitimate complaints. Camps should also recognize that there are some people who have complaints, but who will not express them. Providing a means for everyone to be heard passes on the message that all opinions are important, and that everyone will be listened to.

Kowalski, R. (1996) Complaints and complaining: Functions, antecedents, and consequences, Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 179-196.

Confusion Surrounding Mandate Reporting

The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 resulted in the implementation of mandated reporting across the United States. Mandated reporter laws use a broad definition of child abuse and provide little guidance to reporters about what is reportable and what is not. The language in the federal law states that if a mandated reporter has a "reasonable cause to suspect abuse," he or she must report the suspicion to child protective services.

Licensed child therapists face an ethical and legal dilemma in reporting child abuse cases, which may conflict with the goals of child protective services officials. To examine the differing, yet overlapping perspectives on the reporting and treatment of child abuse, a qualitative study was undertaken in the state of New York. A convenience sample of 29 therapists and 20 CPS workers participated in semi-structured interviews about their experiences with mandated reporting. Over 95 percent of the therapists were white and 75 percent were female; almost 95 percent of the CPS workers were white and female. Experience in child protection for all subjects ranged from 1 to 14 years with a mean of 5.5 years.

Investigators asked therapists about recent cases they had reported, including their experiences with the clients and the investigative process. After the discussion, therapists were asked to discuss mandated reporting in general. Researchers asked CPS workers about recent cases therapists had reported to them. CPS workers were asked about the characteristics of the case, the investigative process, the experience with the therapist, and the case closing.

The data were analyzed with independent evaluation from each research team member. Researchers found that the "reasonable cause to suspect" clause of the child abuse law was well known by the subjects, and that interpretations of that clause varied greatly. Some therapists believed that if they had even thought about child abuse during a session, they were mandated to report it. Others had a more strict standard and indicated that they had to be certain before reporting a suspected case of child abuse. To help determine reportability, some therapists called a hotline for advice; others consulted with peers or supervisors to determine if a report was necessary.

CPS workers generally took a stricter line for appropriateness of reports; they looked for conclusive evidence and specific indicators rather than a therapist's hunch. This difference in interpreting reportability was attributed to the fact that therapists have a greater personal liability to report abuse than do CPS workers.

In reporting physical abuse, both CPS workers and therapists agreed that evidence of physical injury is absolute cause for referral. CPS workers generally believed that this type of evidence is necessary for an investigation. Factors taken into account in interpreting physical abuse included: age of the child, visible marks or bruises, severity of the injury, intent of the parent or caretaker, and the frequency of occurrence.

In attempting to determine the existence of sexual abuse, CPS workers and therapists agreed that a report is necessary when there is any sexual activity between a child and parent or any other adult. Ambiguous cases were also typically reported. Allegations of sexual abuse, no matter how distant in time, were accorded special significance by both therapists and CPS workers.

Implications for camp

Child abuse is a topic getting a lot of attention in the camp field. Counselors and staff receive training in recognizing abuse, as well as in preventing charges of abuse. Many are confused about who is mandated to report abuse, as well as about what is reportable. This confusion is due, in part, to the ambiguity of the language found in federal and state laws. In addition to federal law, which uses the "reasonable cause to suspect" clause, many states have laws specific to mandatory reporting that use similarly vague language. Camp staff, in their roles as guardians, are usually considered mandatory reporters of suspected child abuse. Checking with state officials about each suspected case of abuse is one way to learn more about the process and to initiate it, if necessary.

Deisz, R., Doueck, H., George, N. & Levine, M. (1996). Reasonable cause: A qualitative study of mandated reporting, Child Abuse & Neglect, 20(4), 275-287.

Deb Jordan, Re.D., is an associate professor of leisure services at the University of Northern Iowa. Send your letters and one-page summaries of research related to camp to: Research Notes, c/o Dr. Deb Jordan, Leisure Services Division, 203 East Gym, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0161. Note: Only research completed within the past two years will be considered for review.