Trauma symptoms: relationship with career thoughts, vocational identity, and developmental work personality.Knowledge of traumatic events A traumatic event is an event that is or may be a cause of trauma. The term may refer to one of the followiong:
********** Knowledge of traumatic events and how trauma symptoms relate to social and psychological well-being continues to grow (Blake, Albano, & Keane, 1992; Coursol, Lewis, & Garrity, 2001; Keane, Weathers, & Kaloupek, 1992; Strauser, Lustig, Donnell, & Pazar, 2003). Trauma is defined as any event that involves the individual being exposed to an incident where injury or death was a possibility and where feelings of terror and hopelessness were evoked (Allen, 1995; Maxman & Ward, 1995; Rosenbloom, Williams, & Watkins, 1999). Accidents; natural disasters; domestic violence; sexual abuse; serious injury; crime victimization victimization Social medicine The abuse of the disenfranchised–eg, those underage, elderly, ♀, mentally retarded, illegal aliens, or other, by coercing them into illegal activities–eg, drug trade, pornography, prostitution. ; and learning about the sudden, unexpected death of a family member or close friend are examples of incidents that have been associated with trauma symptoms (American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the most influential world-wide. Its some 148,000 members are mainly American but some are international. [APA (All Points Addressable) Refers to an array (bitmapped screen, matrix, etc.) in which all bits or cells can be individually manipulated. APA - Application Portability Architecture ], 2000). A person's ability to cope with exposure to a traumatic event is moderated by individual and contextual factors, such as social support, personality variables, cognitive functioning cognitive function Neurology Any mental process that involves symbolic operations–eg, perception, memory, creation of imagery, and thinking; CFs encompasses awareness and capacity for judgment , preexisting pre·ex·ist or pre-ex·ist v. pre·ex·ist·ed, pre·ex·ist·ing, pre·ex·ists v.tr. To exist before (something); precede: Dinosaurs preexisted humans. v.intr. psychological conditions, behavioral capacities, and the duration and intensity of the trauma (Keane, 1989; Thomas, 1995). Exposure to traumatic events negatively affects the psychological, physical, and emotional development of the individuals exposed (Allen, 1995; Bowen, 1982; Erickson & Egeland, 1987; Parker & Parker, 1991). As a result, survivors may experience difficulties with self-esteem, assertiveness assertiveness /as·ser·tive·ness/ (ah-ser´tiv-nes) the quality or state of bold or confident self-expression, neither aggressive nor submissive. , anxiety, trust, guilt, and decision making (Allen, 1995; Gianakos, 1999; Ibrahim & Herr, 1987; N. Peterson & Prior, 2000; Rosenbloom et al., 1999). Coursol et al. (2001) suggested that one aspect of an individual's functioning that may be affected by exposure to traumatic events is the ability of the individual to engage in the career- and work-related activities needed to reach his or her full potential within the world of work. To date, there has been limited research and discussion regarding the relationship between trauma symptoms, career development, and vocational behavior. Extant ex·tant adj. 1. Still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct: extant manuscripts. 2. Archaic Standing out; projecting. research has focused on providing career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action to specific groups of individuals who may have been exposed to traumatic events or who have a high likelihood of being exposed to trauma (Bowen, 1982; Gianakos, 1999; Ibrahim & Herr, 1987; Krieshok, Hastings, Ebberwein, Wettersten, & Owen, 1999; Strauser & Lustig, 2001). However, there has been little empirical-based research that has addressed the relationship between trauma, career development, and vocational behavior. One empirical study in the area of trauma and career development examined the effect of trauma on career maturity (Coursol et al., 2001). Coursol et al. compared 48 trauma survivors with 48 nonsurvivors to determine if there were significant differences between the groups in their level of career maturity and expectations regarding career counseling. They used the Expectations About Counseling-Brief Form (Tinsley, Holt, Hinson, & Tinsley, 1991) to measure individuals' expectations regarding counseling and the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI (Computer-Managed Instruction) Using computers to organize and manage an instructional program for students. It helps create test materials, tracks the results and monitors student progress. ; Crites, 1978) to measure career maturity. With regard to differences in career maturity, Coursol et al. indicated that trauma survivors were not significantly different in their level of career maturity when compared with nonsurvivors, F(1, 75) = 1.008, p > .05. However, they did note that the following two attitude subscales approached significance: Involvement, F(1, 75) = 3.57, p = .06, and Independence, F(1, 75) = 3.62, p = .06. They concluded that the lack of significant differences in career maturity may be due to the nonsurvivor group consisting of displaced homemakers dis·placed homemaker n. A woman who, after managing a household for years, is forced by financial necessity to find a wage-paying job. and that this group may have career development patterns similar to those of trauma survivors. In reviewing the results of the Coursol et al. (2001) study, we examined the effect size associated with the study results regarding career maturity because of the study's small sample size and low statistical power. Effect size analysis revealed a small effect size for the CMI Total score (d = .23), a small to medium effect size for the CMI Involvement subscale (d = .43), and a small to medium effect size for the CMI Independence subscale (d = .44). Examination of the effect sizes suggests that there is a meaningful and practical difference between the groups in their respective levels of career maturity. Building on the work of Coursol et al. (2001), we sought to expand the research investigating the potential relationship between trauma symptoms and the career development process. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2002), the career development process can be conceptualized as a complex, lifelong psychological and behavioral process that is influenced by contextual variables. Throughout the career development process, individuals must engage in a variety of specific tasks that require the use of personal and psychological resources (Herr & Cramer, 1996). One task that an individual must complete during the career development process is the development of behaviors (e.g., timeliness, on-task behavior, appropriate interaction with supervisors) that meet the interpersonal demands of the work environment (Strauser & Keim, 2002; Strauser, Waldrop, & Ketz, 1999; Wilson, 1997). The constellation of the behaviors has been termed work personality and has been conceptualized as developmental in nature (Hershenson, 1981, 1996; Strauser et al., 1999). A second task individuals must complete involves becoming aware of career interests, goals, skills, and talents and is often termed vocational identity (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980). The third task involves the individual's ability to make an effective career decision by identifying work settings that allow for the expression of the individual's vocational identity. This task, named career decision making, has been delineated de·lin·e·ate tr.v. de·lin·e·at·ed, de·lin·e·at·ing, de·lin·e·ates 1. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out. 2. To represent pictorially; depict. 3. as a cognitive task (Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, & Peterson, 2000) and can be negatively affected by negative career thoughts that are manifested through decision-making confusion, career anxiety, and external conflict (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). In the fourth task, the individual must be able to exhibit effective job-finding behaviors that result in eventual employment (Szymanski & Parker, 1996). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between trauma symptoms and the three major aspects of the career development process, specifically, developmental work personality, vocational identity, and career thoughts. Two specific research questions were developed to guide this study. First, what is the relationship between trauma symptoms and developmental work personality, vocational identity, and career thoughts? Second, is there a difference in the three career variables (developmental work personality, vocational identity, career thoughts) for individuals who report high levels of trauma symptoms when compared with individuals who report lower levels of trauma symptoms? We hypothesized that higher levels of trauma symptoms would be associated with lower levels of developmental work personality and vocational identity and higher levels of dysfunctional career thoughts. Method Participants Participants were 131 undergraduates at a large southeastern university For the Florida institution, see . Southeastern University has a total enrollment of about 867. About 77% are locally based[4], and a majority are female, but there is also a significant international enrollment consisting of students from over 50 countries, including West . Research has indicated that college students experience events, such as parental divorce, death in the family, and physical and sexual abuse, that increase the level of trauma symptoms experienced (Crandall, Preisler, & Aussprung, 1992; Denisoff & Endler, 2000; Uruk, Cogdal, & Bridges, 2003). The age of the participants ranged from 18 to 51 years (M = 22.2, SD = 5.7), with 75% (n = 98) between ages 18 and 22, 17% (n = 24) between ages 23 and 30, and 8% (n = 9) older than 30. A majority of the participants were Caucasian (53%, n = 69), with 42% (n = 55) African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , 3% (n = 4) Asian American A·sian A·mer·i·can also A·sian-A·mer·i·can n. A U.S. citizen or resident of Asian descent. See Usage Note at Amerasian. A , and 2% (n = 3) unidentified. Most participants were female (88%, n = 116). Ninety percent of the participants reported education (49%, n = 63) or nursing (41%, n = 54) as their major, with 3% identifying as arts and science majors (n = 4), 1% as business majors (n = 1), and 6% (n = 8) as undeclared or other majors. Most of the participants were employed part time (56%, n = 66), with 25% (n = 29) unemployed and 19% (n = 23) employed full time. Instruments Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI (Computer Telephone Integration) Combining data with voice systems in order to enhance telephone services. For example, automatic number identification (ANI) allows a caller's records to be retrieved from the database while the call is routed to the appropriate party. ; Sampson et al., 1996). The CTI was used to assess career thoughts. The CTI is based on the cognitive information-processing theoretical approach to career development and career services (G. W. Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 1991) and a cognitive therapy cognitive therapy n. Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. approach to mental health and mental health services health services Managed care The benefits covered under a health contract (Beck, 1976; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery emery: see corundum. emery Granular rock consisting of a mixture of the mineral corundum (aluminum oxide, Al2O3) and iron oxides such as magnetite (Fe3O4) or hematite (Fe2O3). , 1979). For the purposes of the instrument, career thoughts are defined as outcomes of one's thinking about assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans, or strategies related to career problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. and decision making. The CTI consists of 48 items and produces a total score and the following three construct subscales: (a) the Decision Making Confusion subscale (14 items), which measures the extent to which emotions or a lack of decision-making skill knowledge interferes with an individual's ability to make a career decision; (b) the Commitment Anxiety subscale (10 items), which examines the impact anxiety has on a person's ability to commit to a career decision; and (c) the External Conflict subscale (5 items), which examines how well a person uses input from others and his or her self-perception in decision making. Respondents use a 4-point rating scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Examples of items are (a) "No field of study or occupation interests me at this time" (Decision Making Confusion subscale), (b) "I'm afraid of overlooking an occupation" (Commitment Anxiety subscale), and (c) "The views of important people in my life interfere with choosing a field of study or occupation" (External Conflict subscale). The CTI Total score and three subscale scores were derived by summing the items. Mean scores were inserted for missing data. Support for the validity of the CTI is provided by Sampson et al. (1996). Support for predictive validity In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a scale predicts scores on some criterion measure. For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings. was established by a study of 199 clients seeking career services and 149 nonclients at two universities (Sampson, Reardon, Peterson, & Lenz, 2004). Results suggest that there are significant differences in CTI Total and construct subscale scores between groups with clients having higher scores. Furthermore, significant differences between groups on 26 items and higher scores on all items by the clients were found as post hoc post hoc adv. & adj. In or of the form of an argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event simply by virtue of having happened earlier: CTI item-level comparisons. Principal components analysis provided support for three factors, specifically, Decision Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict. Correlations between the four subscales of the CTI and measures of similar constructs (i.e., the My Vocational Situation [MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage) Introduced in 1974, the primary operating system used with IBM mainframes (the others are VM and DOS/VSE). MVS is a batch processing-oriented operating system that manages large amounts of memory and disk space. ; Holland et al., 1980], the Career Decision Scale [Osipow, Carney car·ney n. Informal Variant of carny. , Winer, Yanico, & Koschier, 1987], the Career Decision Profile [Jones, 1988], and the Revised NEO [Neuroticism neuroticism a neurotic condition; psychoneurosis. See also: Psychology Noun 1. neuroticism - a mental or personality disturbance not attributable to any known neurological or organic dysfunction neurosis, psychoneurosis , Extraversion extraversion /ex·tra·ver·sion/ (ek?strah-ver´zhun) extroversion. extraversion see extroversion. , and Openness] Personality Inventory [Costa & McCrae, 1992]) provided support for the convergent validity Convergent validity is the degree to which an operation is similar to (converges on) other operations that it theoretically should also be similar to. For instance, to show the convergent validity of a test of mathematics skills, the scores on the test can be correlated with scores of the CTI. Finally, the CTI scores were significantly different between college students seeking career services and students not seeking career services, providing evidence of the criterion-related validity of the CTI. Internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability coefficients have been reported between .93 and .97 for the CTI Total score, .90 and .94 for the Decision Making Confusion subscale, .79 and .91 for the Commitment Anxiety subscale, and .74 and .81 for the External Conflict subscale. In this study, an internal consistency estimate of .98 was found for the CTI Total score, .97 for the Decision Making Confusion subscale, .92 for the Commitment Anxiety subscale, and .87 for the External Conflict subscale. MVS. The MVS, a brief self-administered and hand-scored instrument that is designed as a diagnostic instrument to be used in career planning with a wide group of individuals, was used to assess vocational identity. The MVS may be administered individually or in a group setting and can be completed and scored in less then 10 minutes. Eighteen true/false items make up the Vocational Identity subscale. Vocational identity is attained when an individual possesses a clear and stable understanding of his or her career goals, interests, personality, and talents and is operationalized through questions such as "The jobs I can do may not pay enough to live the kind of life I want." According to Holland and Holland (1977), vocational identity has demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. between the Vocational Identity subscale and other career-related measures. Solberg, Good, Fischer, Brown, and Nord (1995) found a strong correlation between vocational identity and career self-efficacy (.54) and vocational identity and career decision-making self-efficacy (.61). However, some researchers described vocational identity as "fuzzy" (Brisbin & Savickas, 1994; Brown & Lent, 2000; Leung, Conoley, Scheel, & Sonnenberg, 1992; Lewis & Savickas, 1995; Savickas, 1985; Schulenberg, Vondracek, & Kim, 1993; Skorikov & Vondracek, 1998; Vondracek, 1991, 1992, 1995; Vondracek & Skorikov, 1997). However, given the internal consistency in our study (.87), we found the MVS to be an efficacious ef·fi·ca·cious adj. Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective. [From Latin effic instrument. Internal consistency coefficients ranged from .86 to .89 for the Vocational Identity subscale. The construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. of the MVS was established through the initial scale development process and small to moderate correlations in the expected direction between the three MVS subscales (Vocational Identity, Occupational Information, and Barriers) and the age, number and variety of occupational aspirations, and external ratings for a sample of 824 individuals in high school, college, or business (Holland et al., 1980). Developmental Work Personality Scale (DWPS; Strauser & Keim, 2002). The DWPS, a 27-item self-report instrument, was used to assess developmental work personality. The DWPS is based on the construct of developmental work personality (Strauser et al., 1999) and is designed to address the tasks and events that individuals encounter during the formative years of schooling that are critical in shaping the development of their work personalities. Specifically, the scale measures the extent to which an individual has successfully completed the tasks necessary to develop a healthy work personality. Twenty-six of the items use a Likert scale Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc ranging from 0 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me), with total scores for the DWPS ranging from 0 to 130. Sample items that make up the 26 Likert scale items include "In school I completed my work on time" and "At school I was easily distracted while working on a task." One additional non-Likert scale item asks respondents to report the highest grade that they completed (e.g., "I completed school through the following grade ... 5-12+."). The construct validity of the DWPS was supported through a principal components analysis identifying the unitary construct of developmental work personality. Three of the five factor scales of the Work Personality Profile-Self-Report (WPP-SR) also had a unique relationship with the DWPS, and the total score of the WPP-SR accounted for 33% of the variance of the DWPS (Strauser & Keim, 2002). Reliability analysis of the DWPS indicated an internal consistency coefficient alpha of .91 for the 26-item scale, with an internal consistency estimate of the 26 items for the present study of .88. Los Angeles Los Angeles (lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. Symptom Checklist Symptom Checklist SCL-90R Psychology An instrument that assess 9 domains of psychiatric Sx–anxiety, depression, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, obsessive-compulsiveness, paranoid ideation, phobic anxiety, pychoticism, somatization (LASC LASC Los Angeles Southwest College LASC Los Angeles Superior Court LASC Latin America Solidarity Coalition LASC Legal Aid Services Council LASC LEO and Anomaly Support Center (US DoD SATCOM) ; King, King, Leskin, & Foy, 1995). The LASC was used to assess trauma symptoms. The LASC was developed by King et al. to provide both a categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional. A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding. Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. and a continuous measure of posttraumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder An anxiety disorder in some individuals who have experienced an event that poses a direct threat to the individual's or another person's life. (PTSD PTSD posttraumatic stress disorder. PTSD abbr. posttraumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ) for diagnostic assessment and symptom severity. The 43-item instrument specifically addresses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders /Di·ag·nos·tic and Sta·tis·ti·cal Man·u·al of Men·tal Dis·or·ders/ (DSM) a categorical system of classification of mental disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, that delineates objective (3rd ed., rev.; DSM-III-R; APA, 1987) criteria for PTSD and includes 17 items that address symptoms related to reexperiencing, avoidance and numbing numb adj. numb·er, numb·est 1. Deprived of the power to feel or move normally; benumbed: toes numb with cold; too numb with fear to cry out. 2. , and hyperarousal. King et al. also discussed the concordance concordance /con·cor·dance/ (-kord´ins) in genetics, the occurrence of a given trait in both members of a twin pair.concor´dant con·cor·dance n. of the LASC with the DSM-IV-TR DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (Text Revision) (American Psychiatric Association) (APA, 2000) and reported the validity and the common use of the instrument. Each item is a word or brief phrase (e.g., "nightmares" [reexperiencing], "trouble trusting others" [avoidance and numbing], and "difficulty falling asleep" [hyperarousal]). Respondents are instructed to respond using a Likert scale ranging from 0 (no problem) to 4 (extreme problem) to indicate the extent to which the item is a problem. In the present study, the "severity index" was used as LASC scores. A severity index can be derived by summing all of the 17 items that address the "core" PTSD symptoms. Scores for the severity index can range from 0 to 68, with higher scores indicating more severe symptom levels. Coefficient alpha reliabilities were computed across three sample groups for the 17-item Severity Index scale. Coefficients for the 17-item Severity Index scale ranged from .89 to .94 (King et al., 1995). The construct validity of the LASC has been established through the use of regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. and odds ratio, which identified significant and appropriate relationships between the LASC and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (Morrison, 1995; see King et al., 1995). In the present study, internal consistency was .91 for the Severity Index scale. Procedure Faculties were asked to distribute the survey in undergraduate classes at a southeastern urban university. The students were enrolled in freshman academic preparation courses (ACAD ACAD Academy ACAD Academic ACAD AutoCAD (design/drafting development software by Autodesk) ACAD Acadia National Park (US National Park Service) ACAD Atherosclerotic Coronary Artery Disease ) and a freshman orientation program for the spring semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s . The students were given the informed consent form (approved by the university's Institutional Review Board) by the authors and were informed that their participation in the study was voluntary and that they were free to withdraw at any time without penalty. No extra credit was offered to the students for participating in the study. Because a limited number of ACAD classes were offered in the spring semester and a small group of students participated in the freshman orientation program, a total of 132 surveys were distributed and completed. One completed survey was not usable because of missing data, making the total sample for this study 131. The survey packet included an informed consent form, a demographic questionnaire, and the following four instruments: the MVS, the LASC, the CTI, and the DWPS. It is important to note that students were not instructed to fill out the instruments in a set order; instead, they were free to self-select the order in which the instruments were completed. The imbalance of gender and majors was due to class composition during the spring semester in which sampling occurred. An independent t test to examine differences between African American and Caucasian participants across all measures revealed no significant differences and an extremely small effect size. An analysis for gender and age was not conducted because most participants were female and under 30 years of age. Data Analysis To examine the relationship between trauma symptomatology symptomatology /symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy/ (simp?to-mah-tol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with symptoms. 2. the combined symptoms of a disease. symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy n. (LASC Severity Index scale and LASC Global Assessment of Distress subscale), career thoughts, vocational identity, and developmental work personality, Pearson r correlations were calculated. A decision was made to use the three subscales of the CTI in addition to the total score, because previous research has suggested that the three discrete subscales explain unique variance while still being related to the overall construct of career thoughts (Sampson et al., 1996). To determine whether there was a difference between participants who reported high or low trauma symptoms, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted on the continuous variables of career thoughts (CTI Total score and Decision Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict subscales), vocational identity (Vocational Identity subscale), and developmental work personality (DWPS). Group membership was determined by using the bottom third (low-trauma group) and top third (high-trauma group) of the range of scores on the LASC Severity Index scale. Severity Index scores less than 5 were considered low, and scores greater than 11 were considered high. These cutoffs were deemed appropriate because normative samples in King et al.'s (1995) study suggested that scores in the 11-or-above range may or may not meet the criteria for PTSD diagnosis according to the DSM-IV-TR but are indicative of a high level of trauma. The low-trauma group consisted of 43 individuals, and the high-trauma group consisted of 45 individuals. A power analysis was completed to determine if there were an adequate number of participants to detect a statistically significant difference between groups (Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , 1988; Lipsey, 1990). On the basis of Coursol et al.'s (2001) findings, we anticipated a small to medium effect size (d = .44) for the current study and used an alpha level of .15 to achieve adequate power ([beta] = 0.80; Cohen, 1988; Lipsey, 1990). For this study, Cohen's d and r were used as measures of effect size (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991; Rosenthal, Rosnow, & Rubin, 2000). Results The measure of trauma symptomatology correlated significantly with the CTI-Total (r = .45, p < .01), the CTI-Decision Making Confusion (r = .41, p < .001), the CTI-Commitment Anxiety (r = .42, p < .001), and the CTI-External Conflict (r = .41, p < .001; see Table 1). The measure of trauma symptomatology also correlated significantly with the MVS-Vocational Identity (r = -.40, p < .001) and the DWPS (r = -.47, p < .001). One-way ANOVAs were calculated to evaluate the relationships between trauma symptoms and career-related continuous variables. The independent variable, trauma symptoms, included two levels: low and high levels of trauma symptoms. The dependent variables were the CTI-Total, the CTI-Decision Making Confusion, the CTI-Commitment Anxiety, the CTI-External Conflict, the MVS-Vocational Identity, and the DWPS. The ANOVAs produced significant relationships between low and high trauma symptoms on (a) the CTI-Total, F(1, 79) = 15.095, p < .001, d = .86; (b) the CTI-Decision Making Confusion, F(1, 86) = 13.675, p < .001, d = .79; (c) the CTI-Commitment Anxiety, F(1, 84) = 15.370, p < .001, d = .84; (d) the CTI-External Conflict, F(1, 85) = 16.865, p < .001, d = .88; (e) the MVS-Vocational Identity, F(1, 86) = 7.533, p = .007, d= .58; and (f) the DWPS, F(1, 66) = 9.350, p = .003, d = .74 (see Table 2). The results suggest that high trauma symptoms are related to higher levels of dysfunctional career thoughts and lower levels of developmental work personality and vocational identity. Means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for the low- and high-trauma groups are given in Table 3. Discussion The results of this study suggest that increased levels of trauma symptoms may negatively affect the three major aspects of the career development process, specifically, developmental work personality, vocational identity, and career thoughts. Our findings also suggest a significant and meaningful relationship between trauma symptoms and the career variables of the CTI, the Vocational Identity subscale, and the DWPS. In addition, significant and meaningful differences were found between the low- and-high trauma groups for all the career variables used in this study. Upon reanalysis, these results are similar to those of Coursol et al. (2001), who found small to medium effect sizes for the CMI Total score, the CMI Involvement subscale, and the CMI Independence subscale. The results of the correlation between trauma symptoms and career thoughts indicate that as trauma symptoms increase so does the level of dysfunctional career thoughts. Specifically, medium effect sizes were found across all of the career variables, with trauma symptoms accounting for 13% to 20% of the variance in career thoughts. Similarly, a comparison of low- and high-trauma groups indicated significant differences between groups, with large effect sizes. The results suggest that trauma symptoms negatively relate to an individual's ability to make effective career decisions. This study's findings appear to be consistent with the findings of a recent study by DePrince and Freyd (2004), which attempted to link the impact of trauma and cognitive functioning. The results of their study suggest that cognitive processing, such as memory, coding of information, and retrieval, may be impaired by trauma exposure. One possibility is that trauma symptoms create a barrier to effective thinking or reasoning that prevents one from processing the necessary cognitive information in a useful and meaningful manner. In practice, this cognitive barrier could resemble the "blocking" clients may experience in an attempt to protect themselves from negative emotional stimuli or memories. In situations such as this, it is difficult to stay in touch with one's basic needs, let alone make salient life decisions such as a finding a good career fit. Furthermore, lower reported levels of vocational identity, defined as unambiguous career goals and interests, were significantly related to higher levels of trauma symptoms. A medium effect size was found for trauma symptoms, with increased levels of trauma symptoms accounting for 14% and 16% of the variance in the high- and low-trauma groups, respectively. Differences in levels of vocational identity were found between the high- and low-trauma groups, with results indicating a medium effect size. The results indicate that as recalled trauma symptoms increase, individuals' career goals, interests, personality, and talents become less clear and unstable. Again, this finding tends to support the notion that trauma symptoms inhibit cognitive functions related to the development of a solid vocational identity (such as possessing clear vocational values, interests, and awareness of one's basic needs) and potentially interfere with the implementation of career goals. Results also indicate that higher levels of trauma symptoms were associated with lower levels of developmental work personality. Large effect sizes were found in the high- and low-trauma groups, with trauma symptoms accounting for 32% and 22% of the variance in work personality, respectively. Differences between the high- and low-trauma groups suggest significant differences approaching a large effect size (d = .75). These results suggest that individuals who report higher levels of trauma symptoms may have underdeveloped un·der·de·vel·oped adj. Not adequately or normally developed; immature. levels of work personality and may have experienced barriers that limited the growth of their work personality. These results specifically suggest that individuals who report higher levels of trauma symptoms may be at a greater risk of using inappropriate or ineffective behavior in the work environment and may experience increased difficulty in maintaining regular attendance on the job. The overall results of this study provide support to our hypothesis that there is a difference between individuals who report higher levels of recalled trauma symptoms and the four tasks associated with the career development process. Results suggest that individuals who report higher levels of recalled trauma symptoms may experience difficulty in meeting the interpersonal demands of the work environment, establishing a vocational identity, and making effective career decisions. A negative impact in any of these areas could lead to a career path of uncertainty as well as lifelong career dissatisfaction. Coupled with the possibility that these persons may also be experiencing extreme stress related to traumatic incidents, the overall picture for these persons is not a picture of mental, emotional, or physical health. This study supports and expands on Coursol et al.'s (2001) findings by suggesting a negative relationship between trauma symptoms and career development. This study also suggests the need for future studies directed at examining the impact of trauma symptoms on career development and vocational behavior. Limitations There are several limitations associated with this study that limit the generalizability of the results and findings. First, a convenience sample of college students was used that was predominantly female, under the age of 25, and unlikely to have worked full time for an extended period of time. Second, the nonrandom and cross-sectional nature of the data suggests that the interpretation of the results should be limited to the sample examined at the time of the study. Third, the data were obtained through self-report measures regarding recalled trauma symptoms and career planning rather than from using objective measures specifically as they relate to actual functioning at work. Participants may be reluctant to disclose information regarding traumatic events, and social desirability may relate to the career and vocational measures. Fourth, limited validity evidence associated with the measures used in this study may increase the chance of measurement error and does not completely rule out the possibility of latent variables In statistics, Latent variables (as opposed to observable variables), are variables that are not directly observed but are rather inferred (through a mathematical model) from other variables that are observed and directly measured. that may account for a portion of the variance explained in the relationship between recalled trauma symptoms and the career variables used in the study. An additional problem associated with the career instruments used in this study is the relatively high correlations between the CTI subscales. The correlations between the CTI subscales in this study contribute to a potential multicollinearity problem that may make interpretations based on the subscales problematic. Finally, causal conclusions concerning the relationship between trauma and career indices must be considered with caution. The nonexperimental nature of the current study precludes the assumption of causality causality, in philosophy, the relationship between cause and effect. A distinction is often made between a cause that produces something new (e.g., a moth from a caterpillar) and one that produces a change in an existing substance (e.g. . Implications for Career Counseling The preliminary results linking recalled trauma symptoms to career development suggest important implications for career counseling. Work is a social behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. , and there may be personal adjustment issues for the individuals with recalled trauma symptoms linked with career development that will merit attention in the counseling process (Neff, 1986). The present results suggest that PTSD symptoms may negatively relate to an individual's ability to develop, retain, or produce desired career thoughts and behaviors. Individuals who have experienced, or are currently experiencing, recalled trauma symptoms may have difficulty developing an effective work personality, coherent vocational identity, and effective career thoughts. If a relationship between recalled trauma symptoms and the career development process does exist, career counselors may find the following considerations useful. First, the career counselor should become familiar with PTSD and trauma symptoms. Second, if the client displays an elevated level of trauma symptoms, the career counselor may choose to use an appropriate psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and instrument designed to measure trauma symptoms and incorporate personal adjustment counseling to address the trauma symptoms. Referral of the client to a counselor or psychologist with expertise in addressing trauma-related issues would also be appropriate. When working with clients with elevated levels of trauma symptoms, the most pertinent work issues to address are (a) coping skills A coping skill is a behavioral tool which may be used by individuals to offset or overcome adversity, disadvantage, or disability without correcting or eliminating the underlying condition. Virtually all living beings routinely utilize coping skills in daily life. and possible stress reactions, (b) decision-making skills, (c) potential medication issues, (d) assertiveness training assertiveness training Psychiatry A procedure in which subjects are taught appropriate interpersonal responses involving frank, honest, and direct expression of their feelings, both positive and negative and conflict resolution, and (e) the possibility of comorbidity of PTSD and depression or other symptoms associated with PTSD (e.g., anxiety, alcohol and drug use). Career counselors should become familiar with the signs of PTSD and trauma symptoms and the numerous strategies for screening for the presence of PTSD symptoms. Although maladaptive Maladaptive Unsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation. Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy coping mechanisms coping mechanism Psychiatry Any conscious or unconscious mechanism of adjusting to environmental stress without altering personal goals or purposes often accompany PTSD symptoms, it is possible through effective career counseling for clients to learn how to match their skills and abilities to a positive work environment and to use healthy coping skills. Directions for Future Research On the basis of this study, there are several directions for future research. First, the current study should be replicated with a larger, more diverse sample to determine if the results of this study are unique. Second, future studies should incorporate multiple measures of trauma symptoms. Third, actual functioning on the job or in a work setting should be used as a measure of career and vocational behavior. This would decrease the reliance of self-report career measures. Finally, studies should examine how trauma specifically affects the acquisition of effective career behaviors and cognitions. Bandura's (1986) theory of observational learning For other uses, see Social learning. Observational learning (also known as: vicarious learning or social learning or modeling) is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in others. and other social-cognitive frameworks may provide explanatory models for conceptualizing how trauma negatively affects the acquisition of appropriate career and vocational behaviors. References Allen, J. G. (1995). Coping with trauma: A guide to self-understanding. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.) Washington, DC: Author. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author. 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Strauser, Department of Kinesiology kinesiology Study of the mechanics and anatomy of human movement and their roles in promoting health and reducing disease. Kinesiology has direct applications to fitness and health, including developing exercise programs for people with and without disabilities, preserving and Community Health, University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to:
TABLE 1 Correlations Between Measures (N = 131)
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. LASC (a) -- .45* .41* .42* .41* -.40* -.47*
2. CTI-Total -- .95* .91* .80* -.70* -.31*
3. CTI-DMC -- .80* .69* -.69* -.29*
4. CTI-CA -- .65* -.77* -.23*
5. CTI-EC -- -.46* -.30*
6. MVS-VI -- .14
7. DWPS --
M 11.2 30.5 6.8 8.5 2.8 13.4 117.8
SD 10.6 25.9 8.6 6.8 3.1 4.2 14.2
Note. LASC = Los Angeles Symptom Checklist; CTI = Career Thoughts
Inventory; DMC = Decision Making Confusion; CA = Commitment Anxiety;
EC = External Conflict; MVS-VI = My Vocational Situation-Vocational
Identity; DWPS = Developmental Work Personality Scale.
(a) The LASC-Severity Index scale and the LASC-Global Assessment of
Distress subscale were used to measure trauma symptomatology.
*p < .001.
TABLE 2 One-Way Analysis of Variance Results for Trauma Scores
Measure df MS F d
CTI-Total 1, 79 601.393 15.095* .86
CTI-DMC 1, 86 66.970 13.675* .79
CTI-CA 1, 84 44.602 15.370* .84
CTI-EC 1, 85 8.041 16.865* .88
MVS-VI 1, 86 18.741 7.533** .58
DWPS 1, 66 200.695 9.350** .74
Note. CTI = Career Thoughts Inventory; DMC = Decision Making Confusion;
CA = Commitment Anxiety; EC = External Conflict; MVS-VI = My Vocational
Situation-Vocational Identity; DWPS = Developmental Work Personality
Scale.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
TABLE 3 Means and Standard Deviations for the Low- and High-Trauma
Groups
Low-Trauma Group High-Trauma Group
Measure M SD M SD
CTI-Total 19.8 20.3 42.9 27.7
CTI-DMC 3.8 5.9 10.2 9.9
CTI-CA 5.7 5.8 11.4 7.4
CTI-EC 1.5 1.9 4.0 3.4
MVS-VI 14.5 3.7 11.9 4.9
DWPS 123.9 9.6 113.4 17.2
LASC-SI 2.35 1.65 22.09 10.53
Note. CTI = Career Thoughts Inventory; DMC = Decision Making Confusion;
CA = Commitment Anxiety; EC = External Conflict; MVS-VI = My Vocational
Situation-Vocational Identity; DWPS = Developmental Work Personality
Scale; LASC-SI = Los Angeles Symptom Checklist-Severity Index.
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