Translating literature and learning culture.

Abstract

In teaching English as a foreign language at college and university level, translation of literature in the native language of students into English provides unique learning opportunities beyond the extraordinary engagement with the two languages themselves. The literature can provide students with opportunities to widen and deepen their understanding and appreciation of their own culture and to extend that sensitivity on a global scale to other peoples and their cultures.

Introduction

Teaching English literature in students' native language turns on its head the customary approach of students' learning the cultures of English-speaking countries in English as a foreign language (EFL). There are various types of translation and a number of ways in which it can be utilized as a very productive pedagogic device in language classes. Widdowson (1979) has affirmed that in some circumstances certain kinds of translation indeed may provide the most effective means of learning. Translation of literature within EFL instruction can be a remarkable instrument of learning for language, literature and culture. Bringing to students literature in their first language (LI) through the task of translation into English as the second language (L2) deepens their understanding and appreciation of their own language and literature. Furthermore, literary translation can be an innovative way in which students may enhance their social and cultural awareness of their own country and extend that sensitivity to a global scale as well.

There is a plethora of books, video programs, CD-ROMs, and other resources dealing with cultural education. The nature of culture itself and the importance and rationale, goals and frameworks, methodologies and activities for cultural teaching are thoroughly presented in many works such as Damen (1987), Seelye (1988), and Tomalin and Stempleski (1993). However, often there is little inclusion of students' native culture as content in EFL classroom instruction. Yet an integral element of students' advancement in English language proficiency is their expression of thoughts, opinions, and feelings, and statement of knowledge and information, on matters within their life experiences and in the society around them. Using content from students' own society and culture in the English language classroom greatly facilitates, encourages, and motivates their self-expression. Furthermore, such an instructional focus also establishes a necessary and vital bridge for many students that connects to a wider and deeper understanding of other peoples, cultures, and issues.

Translation process and cultural understanding

Translation of carefully selected passages from literature in their first language offers EFL students a unique opportunity to explore the dimensions of both languages and to develop their skills and style of written expression in English in ways that are both different from and beyond the products of standard composition and expression in the second language. The rationale and foundations, as well as the particular instructional methodology, for EFL literary translation are discussed at length and in detail in Porcaro (1998, 2001). Following is a brief review of key points from some of the literature dealing with this mode of instruction. Duff (1989) succinctly summarizes the value of translation in language learning: Translation develops three qualities essential to all language learning: flexibility, accuracy, and clarity. It trains the learner to search (flexibility) for the most appropriate words (accuracy) to convey what is meant (clarity). This combination of freedom and constraint allows the students to contribute their own thoughts to a discussion which has a clear focus--the text. (p. 7)

The text for translation requires that "students consider various aspects of meaning they have extracted and rethink it in terms of the target language so that as little is added and as little is lost as possible" (Rivers & Temperley, 1978, p. 329). They must think from the meaning to the words, letting thought shape language, not the other way around (Duff, 1981). At the same time, students sometimes must consider the expression and treatment of nuance and ambiguity in both languages. Rivers and Temperley (1978) insightfully describe the translation process in an EFL setting: The production of an acceptable translation into English is [for students] ... a means for developing sensitivity to the meanings expressed in a stretch of discourse in one's own language and to the different linguistic mechanisms used by the two languages to convey these meanings. Students learn to translate ideas, not words. This type of exercise is, therefore, an analytic activity. Through a comparative examination of the syntactic and semantic systems of English and the native language and the cultural contexts in which they operate [italics added], students attempt to expand their own potential for expression in the English language. (p. 337)

Meaning, indeed, is culture-specific and constructed with the schemata or background knowledge which one brings to the transaction with a text. As Brannen (1997) has noted: All translation is the translation of culture, whether considered narrowly as the transfer of meaning expressed in one language into equivalent expressions in another language, or broadly on a socio-semiotic scale embracing a range of semiotic systems. (p. 169) Literary text in particular is inseparable from its social and cultural origins and the task of translation involves students first in an understanding of the L1 text with conscious application of the schemata from their L1 background. In the process of translation of an L1 literary text, students deepen their understanding of its social and cultural background and re-examine its essence so that they can aptly communicate it in English. They are involved in a transaction with the L1 text in order to construct an equivalent written L2 (English) text that reproduces the greatest possible degree of meaning of the original text (Newmark, 1988a). Thus, the act of translation enables students to see their own society and culture in a new light and then to extend their perspective to a broader international scope. Therein lies an intrinsic value of such translation in a foreign language class.

Instructional setting

Specifically, this article refers to the Japanese-to-English literary translation course I taught from 1990 to 2000 in Japan in the intensive program of a two-year foreign language college and in the EFL program of a university. The texts used were carefully selected passages of about three to five pages from both short stories and novels by some of the most prominent modern and contemporary Japanese literary figures. The texts usually included the continuous pages of a scene with the principal characters, a highlight or pivot of the story, or a scene representative of the story as a whole. A combination of narrative and dialog, with minimal description, generally works best, heeding the observation that "narrative, a sequence of events, is likely to be neater and closer to translate than description, which requires the mental perception of adjectives and images" (Newmark, 1988b, p. 50). Movies that follow very closely the narrative line of the novel from which it is derived, are faithful to its themes and characterizations, and contain the particular scene from the literary text selected for translation, are very effective in supporting the process of translation of the excerpt from the novel undertaken by students. Fortunately, there is a very rich tradition of Japanese films from literature that enables this instructional approach.

Indeed, just as film can play an important role in activities in both L1 and L2 literature studies, it can also support EFL students' transactions with an L1 literary text and the process of constructing an L2 (English) translation of that text. Though "every [film] adaptation is inevitably an interpretation of its source" (McDonald, 2000, p. xi), as indeed is any translation, film can activate and develop the social and cultural background knowledge needed for a fuller and deeper understanding of the literary text that its source. Thus, the use of film can help lead students to the language to translate that text of the novel more accurately and effectively. Film engages both visually and verbally and can distinctly motivate students to engage more deeply with the literary text itself.

It is important to note that to implement this instructional approach teachers need not have an advanced command of the students' first language. As Newmark (1991, p. 137) notes, one needs to distinguish teaching translation within language teaching and teaching translation. The methodology of EFL literary translation explained in detail in Porcaro (1998, 2001) demonstrates how teachers with moderate proficiency in the students' first language can very effectively carry this out in a cooperative and highly collaborative learning environment. Some of the essential elements for success are: very judicious selection of texts for translation; close consultation with a reliable colleague who is a native speaker of the first language; employment of a translation writing process that includes concentrated teacher-student conferencing and student-student collaboration; and gradual accumulation of experience and expertise along with motivation, faith, and inspiration conveyed to students.

Social and cultural issues

The following three examples illustrate how a careful selection of L1 (Japanese) literary texts, along with film adaptations of the novels, can effectively promote students' social and cultural learning as well as appreciation of the literature through the linguistic process of translation itself. As Valdes notes: "Literature is culture in action" (1988, p. 137).

Discrimination

The river with no bridge (Hashi no nai kawa) (1961) is a novel from popular literature by Sue Sumii (1902--1997). The story is set in the 1910's and is a frank and stark account of the bigotry faced by the outcast group, burakumin, whose descendants now number about three million, and the outrages committed against them still at that time. They are racially identical to other Japanese, but have been ruthlessly ostracized and despised for many centuries for their association with occupations considered defiling. Segregation legally ended in 1871 and overt discrimination has been rare for several decades now, but severe social problems among the people persist. The subject is avoided with dread by most Japanese.

The four-page scene that I give for students' translation work involves the central character, Koji Hatanaka, as a 5th grade boy, smarting from the injustice and humiliation he and others are subjected to at school, standing up to his tormenters in a bold act of identity and defiance. After students have read the scene, I show the entire film adaptation of the novel. Their attention is riveted and they are visibly moved.

The subject of this novel and the historical detail are effectively absent from the background of nearly all students. Yet, to convey the meaning of the literary text in translation, it is essential that they have not only an understanding of the issue but also a feeling for it. In this regard, the images on the screen successfully transmit the meanings and effects derived from the novel. Not only are students' translations of the literary text remarkably good, but also they learn about and reflect upon discrimination in their own society and are better able to understand such issues in cultures elsewhere in the world.

Gender Issues

I use selections from short stories and novels by Japanese women about Japanese women in various circumstances in contemporary society and other historical periods to raise students' awareness and understanding of the lives and issues of women in Japan.

The novel The doctor's wife (Hanaoka Seishu no tsuma) (1967) was written by Sawako Ariyoshi (1931--1984), one of Japan's most versatile, prolific, and popular modern writers. It is based on the true life of Hanaoka Seishu (1760-1835), a poor country doctor who developed a general anesthetic and performed the world's first successful surgery with it. The story, however, centers on two women, his wife, Kae, and his mother, Otsugi, and the love/hate relationship and painful struggle between them as they compete for Seishu's affection, even to the point of being human guinea pigs for his experiments. They, and Seishu's two sisters, devote their lives to his success. The novel explores the meaning of family and the complex role of women as its supporting structure. Yet while the women are the center of the story, their roles are defined and controlled by the traditional family system and their dependence on men.

The four-page scene I give for translation turns on the coming home of Kae's husband from his long period of medical study in Kyoto. It marks the unexpected change in her relationship with Otsugi and the start of her long and poignant struggle with her mother-in-law. The film adaptation of this historical novel enables students to both see and feel the ambiance and the social and cultural life of rural Japan in that era, which are far beyond the background knowledge of nearly all students. They can also experience visually the feelings and subtle gestures presented in the literary text and depicted in the film. Thus, they are better able to construct their translations more accurately and fluently, reflecting more closely the meanings in the original literary text. At the same time, the encounter opens up for students a historical perspective on gender issues and advances their understanding of contemporary culture in their country and beyond.

Growing up

Sakae Tsuboi (1899--1967) was one of Japan's most prominent female authors. She drew much from her own background and experiences for her stories. She was born in a small village on Shodo Island in the Seto Inland Sea, one of twelve children in a poor family. Twenty-four eyes (Nijushi no hitomi) (1952) is her best-known work. The novel poignantly traces the lives of a young elementary school teacher and the twelve students of her first-grade class from a small village on the remote Shodo Island. The events take place in the tumultuous years from 1929 to 1946. The emotional, indeed sentimental, story chronicles the teacher's relationship with the children, and each child's personality and life is focused on as they grow up and change. Their innocence confronts the adult world and the sociopolitical environment of those times. Their happiness is destroyed and some lives are lost by the uncontrollable forces of economic depression, death, militarism, and war.

In the few-page passage that is used for translation, one child's joy is shattered and her life altered after the death of her mother in childbirth. Twenty-four eyes has twice been made into a very affecting movie and I show one of them to my classes in the introduction to this translation task. It aids students in constructing their translations in much the same way as described above for the films of the other stories. The translation work on this literary piece furthers students' understanding of and sensitivity toward the social and cultural history of a period within the life experience of their own grandparents. With that they may be able to transcend that time and place in Japan to acknowledge the uncountable individual tragedies within the wholesale wreckage of life occurring in so many other lands still now caught in the horror of conflict and turmoil.

Conclusion

In the teaching of English as a foreign language at college and university level, most commonly L2 (English) literature and the cultures of English-speaking countries, particularly the U.S.A. and Great Britain, are focuses of instruction. The unique approach of translation of literature in the students' native language into English, however, affords students an opportunity to learn language, culture, and literature from the inside out. It involves an exceptional engagement with both the first and second languages. Furthermore, literary texts such as those presented as examples in this article provide possibilities to learn more deeply the culture of one's own society and to extend that understanding to touch other peoples in other places in the world with whom we all share a culture of common humanity.

This experience indeed starts on the spot, within the classroom itself, where a genuine collaborative process makes up the essential methodology of this kind of translation. There is a unique form of two-way teaching and learning which involves a special sharing between the EFL students and the native English-speaking teacher founded on mutual acknowledgment and appreciation of both languages and cultures within a rewarding, interactive foreign language learning experience.

References

Ariyoshi, S. (1967). Hanaoka seishu no tsuma. Tokyo: Shinchosha.

Brannen, N.S. (1997). Translation: Where cultures meet: Translating J-E. Los Angeles: J-E Link, Inc.

Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Duff, A. (1981). The third language. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Duff, A. (1989). Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

McDonald, K. (2000). From book to screen: Modern Japanese literature in film. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Newmark, P. (1988a). Approaches to translation. London: Prentice Hall.

Newmark, P. (1988b). A textbook of translation. London: Prentice Hall.

Newmark, P. (1991). About translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Porcaro, J. (1998). Japanese literary translation in an English language program. The Language Teacher, 22 (12), 5-9.

Porcaro, J. (2001). A rationale for L1-to-L2 literary translation in college EFL instruction. JALT Journal, 23 (2), 248-268.

Rivers, W.M. & Temperley, M.S. (1978). A practical guide to the teaching of English as a second or foreign language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Seelye, H. N. (1988). Teaching culture. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.

Sumii, S. (1961). Hashi no nai kawa. Tokyo: Shinchosha.

Tomalin, B. & Stempleski, S. (1993). Cultural awareness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Tsuboi, S. (1952). Nijushi no hitomi. Tokyo: Kobunsha.

Valdes, J.M. (1988). Culture in literature. In J.M. Valdes (Ed.), Culture bound: Bridging the cultural gap in language teaching (pp. 137-147). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Widdowson, H.G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

James W. Porcaro, Toyama University of International Studies, Japan

Porcaro is professor of English as a foreign language. He holds an M. Ed. in TESOL and an M.A. in African Area Studies. His interests include the role of literary translation in EFL instruction and sustained content language instruction.