Transitions, wellness, and life satisfaction: implications for counseling midlife women.A diverse sample of 224 women, aged 35 to 65, participated in a study to examine the relations among transitions, life satisfaction, and wellness. The Women's Midlife Transitions Survey, developed for this study, provided information on the timeliness, expectedness, and impact of common midlife transitions. Implications for mental health counselors A mental health counselor is a professional who provides counseling to individuals, couples, families, groups, or larger systems. A mental health counselor may also have training in educational and vocational counseling (MacCluskie & Ingersoll 2001). include the need to help midlife women understand and cope with a variety of common life changes that individually and collectively help to define their midlife experience. ********** Comprising approximately 45% of the U.S. female population (U.S. Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States Bureau of the Census , 2001), women aged 40 and over are charting life paths that are in stark contrast from the predictions of existing adult development theories built on the experiences of past generations (Neugarten, 1968). For some, midlife is a period of life for which there are flexible boundaries and no single, universal set of delimited de·lim·it also de·lim·i·tate tr.v. de·lim·it·ed also de·lim·i·tat·ed, de·lim·it·ing also de·lim·i·tat·ing, de·lim·its also de·lim·i·tates To establish the limits or boundaries of; demarcate. age parameters (Staudinger & Bluck, 2001). Quadagno (2001) observed that "midlife" has only recently been defined, and explained that the development of a phase of life called "midlife" was due to increased longevity and the trend for a couple to spend as much as two decades or more together after the launching of their children. In 1989, the Harvard Medical School Harvard Medical School (HMS) is one of the graduate schools of Harvard University. It is a prestigious American medical school located in the Longwood Medical Area of the Mission Hill neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. organized a research team, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, philanthropic institution founded 1978 by John D. MacArthur (1897–1978), owner of a prominent insurance company and other businesses, and his wife Catherine T. Research Network on Successful Midlife Development (MIDMAC), to focus on successful midlife development because midlife was seen as a poorly defined and understudied life stage (MIDMAC, 1999). The team employed age parameters of 30 to 70 for their research efforts, while focusing on the ages from 40 to 60 as defining the fundamental midlife population. In tandem Adv. 1. in tandem - one behind the other; "ride tandem on a bicycle built for two"; "riding horses down the path in tandem" tandem with the poor understanding of middle adulthood and its parameters come many cultural stereotypes. These stereotypes depict midlife as a time of barrenness Barrenness Bashfulness (See TIMIDITY.) Andermatt, Christiane takes series of baths hoping to cure childlessness. [Fr. Lit.: Mont-Oriol, Magill I, 618–620] Barren Ground , asexuality a·sex·u·al adj. 1. Having no evident sex or sex organs; sexless. 2. Relating to, produced by, or involving reproduction that occurs without the union of male and female gametes, as in binary fission or budding. 3. , loss, and deterioration de·te·ri·o·ra·tion n. The process or condition of becoming worse. (MacPherson, 1995; Marcus-Newhall, Thompson, & Thomas, 2001; Markson & Taylor, 2000). However, today's midlife women may experience transitions during this period of life that differ markedly from traditional societal expectations and for which there are few role models. These transitions may occur in any of several contexts, including social, vocational, familial familial /fa·mil·i·al/ (fah-mil´e-il) occurring in more members of a family than would be expected by chance. fa·mil·ial adj. , and historical. First-time childbirth childbirth: see birth. Childbirth Childlessness (See BARRENNESS.) Artemis (Rom. Diana) goddess of childbirth. [Gk. Myth. (Martin, Hamilton, Ventura, Menacker, & Park, 2002), first-time marriage (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002), divorce (Uhlenberg, Cooney, & Boyd, 1990), acceptance of a different sexual orientation sexual orientation n. The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes, especially a direction seen to be dictated by physiologic rather than sociologic forces. (O'Leary, 1997), or reassuming the role of mother as a custodial grandparent (Climo, Terry, & Lay, 2002) are examples of unique transitions that midlife women may experience today. Ivey, Ivey, Myers, and Sweeney (2004) observed that the majority of clients present for counseling during life transitions; hence, to help midlife women cope with their changing life circumstances, mental health counselors need a knowledge base that both describes significant transition issues and relates them to positive mental health outcomes such as life satisfaction and well-being or wellness. Factors that affect the impact of transitions include not only context, but also timing, expectations, and perceived impact (Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995). Neugarten, Moore, and Lowe (1965) found that the perceived timeliness of an event (whether or not it was perceived as being "on-time") was particularly significant to an individual's assessment of the effect of specific transitions; moreover, age norms Noun 1. age norm - the average age at which particular performances are expected to appear average, norm - a statistic describing the location of a distribution; "it set the norm for American homes" and expectations play a direct role in an individual's decision to begin and end particular activities. Societal sanctions may exist for those who transgress against age norms (Neugarten, 1996). Interestingly, Settersten and Hagestad (1996) found that the preponderance pre·pon·der·ance also pre·pon·der·an·cy n. Superiority in weight, force, importance, or influence. Noun 1. preponderance of beliefs concerning age-specific events or deadlines refer to the events in women's lives rather than in the lives of both men and women. Thus, the lives and choices of women appear to be more proscriptively constrained con·strain tr.v. con·strained, con·strain·ing, con·strains 1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object. See Synonyms at force. 2. than those of men and women may be at greater risk for negative emotional consequences when culturally "off-time" choices and transitions occur (Degges-White, 2003a). Thus, a better understanding of age norms may provide further understanding of women's unique challenges in this regard. Defining social norms, or age norms, as socially-imbedded, unspoken guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. for age-appropriate behavior, Neugarten, et al. (1965) explored the socially accepted timing of events, and found that age norms existed for many specific life course events such as marriage and childbirth. They further suggested that an inner "social clock" existed, allowing people to gauge whether a life course event had occurred on-time or off-time. Neugarten and Datan (1973) noted that even when a socially imbedded imbedded, adj See embedded. , clearly defined sanction does not exist, age deviancy deviancy Vox populi A major abnormality, usually understood to be mental. See Paraphilia, Sexual deviancy. still carries psychological significance for the individual who may feel that her life is off-track from where she felt it should be at a specific point in time. Because societal expectations regarding the timing and sequencing of women's life course events are more stringent (Settersten & Hagestad, 1996), women may be especially vulnerable to psychological distress psychological distress The end result of factors–eg, psychogenic pain, internal conflicts, and external stress that prevent a person from self-actualization and connecting with 'significant others'. See Humanistic psychology. resulting when they experience transitions that are out of synch with culturally imbedded age norms. As the current cohort of midlife women seeks to develop a new identity representative of their own experiences, they must combat negative cultural stereotypes such as those identified earlier (MacPherson, 1995; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2001; Markson, & Taylor, 2000), as well as break away from the traditional expectations regarding age norms and cultural expectations Hagestad (1988) found that the social clock governed not only actual life events, such as childbearing child·bear·ing n. Pregnancy and parturition. child  bear ing adj. and marriage, but also
people's feelings about entering new life phases, such as midlife
and grandparenthood. Further, Neugarten (1996) believed that adults were
conscious of how the "normal, expectable life cycle" (p. 116)
should progress. Adults were understood to measure their progress
against this internalized social clock, carrying with them an awareness
of whether they were "on-time" or "off-time" as they
reached specific transitions and milestones (Neugarten, 1996;
Schlossberg, 1984). Because events that occur in a timely manner are
assumed to be more socially acceptable, transitions that occur in a
timely manner may be more easily negotiated or accepted than those that
occur off-time (Hagestad, 1990; Hagestad & Smyer, 1982).
Many life events and circumstances now commonly experienced by women in midlife have traditionally been associated with younger women, such as first-time childbirth and beginning a college education. Apter (1995) suggested that the greatest challenge for midlife women is the integration of self-images formed in adolescence with the reality of what it is to be a woman at midlife. Women can no longer assume that their midlife transitions will follow the patterns of the women who preceded them, leaving considerable ambiguity relative to preparation for the midlife decades. In reviewing existing perspectives on midlife development, Staudinger and Bluck (2001) noted that individuals may vary greatly in the events, experiences, and attitudes associated with their passage through midlife. They also noted that the events and experiences of this period may vary according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the age cohort of which an individual is a member, underscoring the importance of historical context. Because the timing of traditional landmark events in adulthood can be different for today's cohort of midlife women, psychological distress may result as they seek to make sense of their life course (Neugarten, 1996). The high incidence of depression among midlife women (Mirowsky, 1996) may be in part a response to their attempts to cope with significant new life challenges. These challenges may affect overall life satisfaction during the middle years (Aldwin & Levinson, 2001) and there is some evidence that transitions can have a detrimental effect on holistic wellness as well (Grossbaum & Bates Bates , Katherine Lee 1859-1929. American educator and writer best known for her poem "America the Beautiful," written in 1893 and revised in 1904 and 1911. , 2002). While the research underscores the unique responses of today's cohort of midlife women to the transitions experienced in their middle years, there is inadequate knowledge of the experiential ex·pe·ri·en·tial adj. Relating to or derived from experience. ex·pe ri·en differences
that exist between individual women or demographic sectors (Degges-White
& Shurts, 2005). In particular, studies of the midlife experiences
of minority women are notably lacking, except perhaps in regard to
changes associated with menopause menopause (mĕn`əpôz) or climacteric (klīmăk`tərĭk, klī'măktĕr`ĭk) (Huffman & Myers, 1999).
Unfortunately, the narrow focus of this research area seems to reflect
the negative stereotypes of midlife women by equating e·quate v. e·quat·ed, e·quat·ing, e·quates v.tr. 1. To make equal or equivalent. 2. To reduce to a standard or an average; equalize. 3. it with menopause (MacPherson, 1995; Marcus-Newhall et al., 2000). This not-so-subtle message that physical transitions define midlife for women regardless of cultural background has long been in existence and should be challenged (Degges-White, 2001). The current study was undertaken to clarify the nature and impact of women's midlife transitions and to investigate how these transition experiences may be related to perceptions of life satisfaction and holistic well-being. In recent years, researchers have used a variety of age ranges to capture, and describe, midlife development, including 35 to 55 (Gabbard & Menninger, 1989); 40 to 60 (McQuaide, 1998; MIDMAC, 1999); 39 to 50 (Wethington, 2000); and 35 to 60 (Howell, 2001), but no single, universal age range has been defined as the midlife period (Staudinger & Bluck, 2001). For this study, a three-decade span (35 to 65) was chosen in order to better describe the experiences of adult women as they move through the middle years of their lives and to provide the opportunity to compare three decade-long age groupings. Our first task was to develop a comprehensive listing of potential midlife transitions for contemporary women. This list was then used to explore women's subjective perspectives of the timeliness, expectations, and impact of their transitions. Acknowledging the role that expectations and timing hold in the subjective experience of transitions (Schlossberg et al., 1995) and the plasticity and cohort effects The term cohort effect is used in social science to describe variations in the characteristics of an area of study (such as the incidence of a characteristic or the age at onset) over time among individuals who are defined by some shared temporal experience or common life found in the midlife experience (Staudinger & Bluck, 2001), we sought to determine whether contemporary women who experienced the majority of their midlife transitions on-time differed in mean levels of overall wellness and life satisfaction from midlife women who experienced the majority of their midlife transitions off-time. Finally, we asked whether midlife women who expected the majority of their midlife transitions to occur at the time that they did differed in mean levels of overall wellness and life satisfaction from midlife women who did not expect the majority of their midlife transitions to occur when they did. We hypothesized that women who experienced events "off-time" and unexpectedly would report lower levels of overall wellness and life satisfaction. METHOD Participants and Procedures Prior to the collection of data, approval for the research was received from the Human Subjects Review Board. A diverse group of 224 women, aged 35 to 65, was recruited through a variety of means and volunteered to participate in the study. Notices were placed on electronic listservs with predominantly adult female memberships including high school alumni listservs, college alumni and active student listservs, and special interest listservs that included midlife women and lesbian women. Flyers were placed at women's centers and health organizations inviting potential participants to contact the researchers for additional information. Snowball sampling For other uses, see Snowball (disambiguation). In social science research, snowball sampling is a technique for developing a research sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. was used by having participants contact other midlife women and inviting them to participate. Face-to-face recruitment was used at women's centers, classrooms, and church groups. Potential participants were asked to supply their postal addresses so that a postage-paid, self-addressed survey packet could be mailed to them for their response. Of 380 distributed questionnaires, 241 (63%) were returned. Two were excluded from data analysis because the respondents did not meet the specified age criteria, five were incomplete, and 10 were received after the deadline for response; thus the final response rate was 58.9%. The participants were a heterogeneous group of midlife women in terms of age, ethnicity, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , employment status, income, education, and geographical location. About one-third (38.8%) were between 45 and 54 years of age, 43.3% were between 45 and 54, and 17.9% were between 55 and 65. The mean age was 47.33 years (SD = 7.44). The majority (85.7%) of the respondents were European American A European American (Euro-American) is a person who resides in the United States and is either the descendant of European immigrants or from Europe him/herself.[1] Overall, as the largest group, European Americans have the lowest poverty rate [2] , 8.9% were African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , 1.8% were Native American, 0.9% were Asian or Pacific Islander Asian or Pacific Islander Multiculture A person with origins in any of the peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, Indian subcontinent, Pacific Islands–eg China, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippine Islands and Samoa , and the remaining 2.7 percent marked Other as their race. Two-thirds of participants (65.2%) were married or partnered, 15.2% were single, 14.3% were divorced, and the majority (60.3%) were employed full-time. The sample was predominantly well-educated and approximately 70% reported household incomes of over $40,000. Due to sampling methods, the majority of respondents (77.8%) were from the Southeast geographic region. Participants received a survey packet that included an informed consent form, the Women's Midlife Transition Survey (WMTS WMTS Wireless Medical Telemetry Service WMTS Wireless Modem Termination System WMTS Wireless Message Transfer System (Vyyo) ; Degges-White, 2003b), the Five Factor Wellness Inventory (5F-Wel; Myers & Sweeney, 1999), the Satisfaction With Life Survey (SWLS SWLS Southwest Wisconsin Library System ; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985), and a brief demographic questionnaire. Measures Women's Midlife Transitions Survey (WMTS). The Women's Midlife Transitions Survey was designed to solicit data pertaining per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. to participants' experience of midlife transitions and was developed specifically for this study. The instrument consists of a list of 27 potential midlife transitions, which were generated from current literature and from five focus groups with 7 to 10 midlife women per group. During each of the focus groups, participants completed a brief demographic survey and engaged in a 60-minute focus group discussion. Participants were 48 women ranging from 35 to 63 years of age (mean age of 46.3 years, SD = 7.8), 9 were African American, 37 European American, and 2 Hispanic. Focus group members were asked to independently name and discuss the various transitions that they had experienced since their 35th birthday. Many of the transitions were similar to those mentioned in the literature over the past three to four decades, including menopause, grandparenthood, children leaving home, and deaths of parents and friends, all of which were included on the final survey. However, certain transitions endorsed by large numbers of women were more reflective of contemporary society. These included divorce and remarriage Re`mar´riage n. 1. A second or repeated marriage. Noun 1. remarriage - the act of marrying again , regretting the decision to not have children earlier and contemplating a first pregnancy in one's forties, having one's first child after age 35, being laid-off or downsized on the job and having to return to school to be able to become employable again, the return of adult children to the home, "surviving" cancer (a disease typically untreatable Un`treat´a`ble a. 1. Incapable of being treated; not practicable. in earlier generations), and renegotiating sexual orientation. The transitions that were mentioned and endorsed the most frequently were chosen to be included in the questionnaire for the larger study, which resulted in a list of 27 transitions, each of which had been experienced by at least two participants. The group discussions provided a broader range of transitions relevant to contemporary midlife women than found in the literature. As suggested by Vaughn, Schumm, and Sinagub (1996), the senior author took notes during her facilitation Facilitation The process of providing a market for a security. Normally, this refers to bids and offers made for large blocks of securities, such as those traded by institutions. of each focus group session, audiotaped each session, and reviewed the audiotapes to find consistent themes and shared transitions among the participant groups. After compiling a comprehensive listing of transitions from each focus group, the audiotapes were reviewed by the author to ensure that the original catalog catalog, descriptive list, on cards or in a book, of the contents of a library. Assurbanipal's library at Nineveh was cataloged on shelves of slate. The first known subject catalog was compiled by Callimachus at the Alexandrian Library in the 3d cent. B.C. of transitions was complete and to verify the themes of participants regarding event timeliness and expectations. This analysis of the focus group discussions generated the data necessary to develop the instrument to assess midlife women's transition experiences. The resulting instrument was reviewed by an expert on midlife, aging, and assessment, and then pilot tested with 12 midlife women who were typical of expected research participants in that they represented a variety of educational levels, marital status, ages (between 35-65 years), and career status. To complete the survey, participants marked the transitions that they had experienced since their 35th birthday and provided the age they were when the transition occurred. In addition to identifying transitions, participants indicated their perceptions of the timeliness of each event ("on-time" or "off-time"); their expectations related to each event ("expected" or "unexpected"); the impact of each event on their life (rated on a 5-point Likert scale Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc , from 1, "minimal impact" to 5, "very strong impact," and the context in which each event occurred (personal, social, or vocational). A score for overall timeliness was determined by the number of transitions experienced on-time as compared to the total number of transitions experienced. There were three distinct categories: 1 = majority of transitions occurred on-time; 2 = equal number of transitions occurred on-time and off-time; and 3 = majority of transitions occurred off-time. Scores for expectations of transitions were determined in the same manner. Pilot group respondents were invited to provide feedback regarding the content and format of the assessment, and based on the feedback received, the author reworded the written instructions for completing the assessment. Five Factor Wellness Inventory (SF-Wel). The 5F-Wel (Myers & Sweeney, 1999) was developed to assess the factors of wellness identified in the Indivisible INDIVISIBLE. That which cannot be separated. 2. It is important to ascertain when a consideration or a contract, is or is not indivisible. When a consideration is entire and indivisible, and it is against law, the contract is void in toto. 11 Verm. 592; 2 W. Self model (IS-WEL; Myers & Sweeney, 2005b). This model is based on the Adlerian concept that the self is indivisible, and supported by empirical findings in which wellness emerged both as a single, higher order, global factor and as a factor comprised of identifiable sub-components (Myers & Sweeney, 2005b). Both the model and the instrument were developed through structural equation modeling Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions. using data from an earlier wellness measure and theoretical model (Hattie, Myers, & Sweeney, 2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses Verb 1. factor analyse - to perform a factor analysis of correlational data factor analyze analyse, analyze - break down into components or essential features; "analyze today's financial market" supported a single higher order factor, 5 second order, and 17 discrete third order factors in the IS-WEL model. Through structural equation modeling, it was determined that wellness, as measured by the 5F-Wel, is a holistic concept, with a goodness of fit Goodness of fit means how well a statistical model fits a set of observations. Measures of goodness of fit typically summarize the discrepancy between observed values and the values expected under the model in question. Such measures can be used in statistical hypothesis testing, e. index (RMSEA RMSEA Root Mean Square Error of Approximation ) of .042 (chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. =8261, df=2533), based on the 5 second-order factors and the single uni-dimenensional higher order factor. Only the single first order factor was included in this study as a measure of total or holistic wellness. The factor score is obtained by summing scores for all of the items on the instrument The 5F-Wel includes 73 items that are behavioral and attitudinal statements such as "I am an active person," to which responses are made using a four-point Likert-type scale. A linear transformation places all scales on a common metric with a possible range of 25 to 100. Norms are reported for 474 males and 820 females (Myers & Sweeney, 2005a; 2005b); the female norms were used in this study. For the norm group as a whole, total wellness scores ranged from 27 to 96 and the mean for women was 76.55 (SD = 11.09) with a Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. of
.94 for the single higher order or total Wellness factor. In the current
study the alpha coefficient was .82. Hattie, et al. (2004) presented
supportive findings related to convergent and divergent di·ver·gent adj. 1. Drawing apart from a common point; diverging. 2. Departing from convention. 3. Differing from another: a divergent opinion. 4. validity using similar instruments that assess coping skills A coping skill is a behavioral tool which may be used by individuals to offset or overcome adversity, disadvantage, or disability without correcting or eliminating the underlying condition. Virtually all living beings routinely utilize coping skills in daily life. and wellness. The Satisfaction with Life Questionnaire (SWLS). The SWLS (Diener et al., 1985) was designed to measure respondents' overall or global satisfaction with their lives. The SWLS is comprised of five items (e.g., "In most ways my life is close to my ideal."), which are rated on a 7-point scale, from 1, "strongly disagree" to 7, "strongly agree." Answers to the five items are averaged, yielding a single measure of global life satisfaction. The internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. of the five-item instrument has been supported by reported alpha coefficients that consistently exceed .80 (Pavot & Diener, 1993). The test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument for a group of 76 students was .82 for a two-month interval (Pavot & Diener). Pavot and Diener also explored the convergent and discriminant validity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. of this instrument and found support for each. Specifically, the SWLS was positively correlated with assessments of well-being and negatively correlated with assessments of psychological distress. The Cronbach's alpha calculated for the SWLS was .84 in the current study. RESULTS Table 1 lists each of the transitions included on the WMTS, the number of women who had experienced each of the transitions, the age means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. , the percent of women who viewed the transition as on-time and expected, and the means and standard deviations of the impact of the transition. The number of women who marked each transition as one they had experienced ranged from a high of 200 for "Noticed physical signs of aging" to a low of 1 for "Became a custodial grandparent." The mean number of transitions marked was 7.52 (SD = 3.79). There was great variability in the maximum age at which a transition was experienced, with the maximum age range for all transitions being from 45 to 65. Eleven of the transitions were experienced in the 6th decade of life, and 14 in the 5th decade. Only three transitions were endorsed by over half of the participants: "Noticed physical signs of aging" (N = 200), "Entered perimenopause perimenopause /peri·meno·pause/ (-men´o-pawz) the time just before and after menopause.perimenopau´sal per·i·men·o·pause n. " (N=140), and "Marked increase in introspection introspection /in·tro·spec·tion/ (in?trah-spek´shun) contemplation or observation of one's own thoughts and feelings; self-analysis.introspec´tive in·tro·spec·tion n. " (N = 122). Although the number of African American participants was small (just over a tenth of the number of European American participants), an exploratory comparison of the experienced transitions by ethnicity was completed. Both groups had experienced many of the same transitions in similar numbers, but notable discrepancies between the percentage of African American women having experienced a specific transition as compared to European Americans were found in "Voluntarily left job" (20% of African Americans to 46% of European Americans), "Relocated to a new city" (15% to 41%), "Returned to school" (60% to 36%), and "Entered committed relationship A committed relationship is an interpersonal relationship based upon a mutually agreed upon commitment to one another involving exclusivity, honesty, or some other agreed upon behavior. " (25% to 46%). The transitions that represent losses, such as the onset of illness or the loss of parents, spouse, or child, were those that were most frequently reported as off-time and unexpected. However, two respondents reported that the onset of illness had occurred on-time and was expected. The return of adult children to the home occurred both off-time and unexpectedly. Regarding committed relationships, the majority of women felt they had entered them on-time although they were most often classified as unexpected. However there were not parallel findings related to the ending of committed relationships. Overall, more events were experienced as being "on-time" than as being "expected." The maximum impact score for all of the transitions was 5 ("very strong impact") and scores ranged from 1 ("minimal impact") to 5 ("very strong impact") for 17 of the 27 total transitions. For three of the transitions the range was smaller, from 3 to 5; these were "Entered committed relationship," "Became a parent," and "Loss of a child." Mean impact scores were lowest for transitions that were physiological in nature (e.g., "Entered perimenopause," "Noticed signs of physical aging," and "Completed menopause"). Of the nine transitions experienced by a third or more of the respondents, four transitions had mean impact scores of over 4.00. These were "Voluntarily left a job," "Relocated to new city," "Returned to school," and "Ended committed relationship." Women were also asked to select which sector of their lives was most impacted by each transition, with choices being the personal, social, and vocational sectors. Although most of the responses placed the transitions in expected sectors, there were a few unexpected results. In addition to specifically career-related transitions, there were several unexpected transitions most strongly impacting the vocational sector for a percentage of the respondents, including "Marked increase in introspection" (10.4%), "Noticed physical signs of aging," (4.8%), and "Completed menopause" (4.8%). The transitions which were reported to have the most diverse impact across participants were "Voluntarily left job," "Relocated to new city," "Returned to school," "Onset of major illness/disease," and "Laid-off or fired from job." A preliminary MANOVA MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of the Variance was completed to determine if there were any significant differences in wellness and life satisfaction (r = .45) between participants based on cultural identity (i.e., European American and non-European American). Due to unequal sample sizes, Pillai's Trace was chosen as the test statistic statistic, n a value or number that describes a series of quantitative observations or measures; a value calculated from a sample. statistic a numerical value calculated from a number of observations in order to summarize them. for its robustness in analysis of small or unequal sample sizes (Olsen, 1976). No statistically significant differences were found (Pillai's Trace = .07, F(8, 438) = 1.95, p = .051, [[eta].sup.2] = .04). These results, coupled with the small number of non-European American participants, led us to include all participants together in further data analyses. Based on the large number of participants with high household incomes, a single MANOVA was conducted to determine whether socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. , as defined by household income, was significantly related to wellness and life satisfaction. Table 2 presents the SWLS and Total Wellness score means for each income group. A significant overall effect (Pillai's trace = .14, F(8, 418) = 3.88, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .07) was found between groups as a function of income. Based on this finding, a MANCOVA MANCOVA Multivariate Analysis of Covariance was implemented to determine possible differences in wellness and life satisfaction based on age group (35-44, 45-54, 55-65), timeliness of transitions, and expectedness of transitions (using household income as the covariate). Household income did significantly contribute as a covariate to this model, F(2, 189) = 7.35, p = .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .07. Multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. effects were also found to be significant for age group (Pillai's trace = .05, F(4, 380) p < .05, [[eta].sup.2] = .03). No other variables or interactions were statistically significant. In follow-up univariate F-tests, household income was found to be statistically significant in relation to SWLS (F(1,190) = 14.6,p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = .07), but not Total Wellness, indicating that life satisfaction scores were higher for those women who had higher incomes. However, age group was found to be significantly related to Total Wellness (F(2,190) = 4.84,p < .05, [[eta].sup.2] = .05), but not to SWLS, indicating that Total Wellness scores were significantly higher for each successive age group, when controlling for household income levels. DISCUSSION This was one of the first studies to explore the specific transitions faced by the current cohort of midlife women. Based on responses to the Women's Midlife Transitions Survey, the transitions most frequently endorsed by the 224 participants included events such as "Entered committed relationship," "Voluntarily left job," "Relocated to new city," and "Returned to school." All of these transitions reflect events that focus on activity and personal growth. Further, these same transitions, traditionally not considered a part of the midlife experience (Neugarten, 1996), were considered to have occurred on-time by the majority of women who experienced them. Surprisingly, timeliness and expectations of transitions, which were hypothesized to be related to both life satisfaction and wellness, were not related in this study. Among the 11 most commonly experienced transitions were physical changes (noticing signs of aging and entering perimenopause), psychological changes (increased inner focus), relationship issues (entered or ended committed relationship), vocational issues (voluntarily left job, returned to school, entered/reentered labor market labor market A place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience ), and family issues (loss of parent, children moving away from home). These changes are supported in the literature as important for women in midlife and reflect the categories of transition contexts--personal, social, and vocational--that underlie the WMTS. Additionally, 12% of the participants endorsed renegotiating sexual identity as an important transition, echoing the growing body of literature that describes the mutability mu·ta·ble adj. 1. a. Capable of or subject to change or alteration. b. Prone to frequent change; inconstant: mutable weather patterns. 2. of women's sexual orientation over the lifespan (Baumeister, 2004; Garnets Garnets may have the following meanings
We did not find a clear pattern relating timeliness or expectations to the type of transitions experienced; thus, the data on these two variables remain primarily descriptive in nature. Schlossberg (1984) proposed that these two variables affect how well one copes with transitions; transitions that are experienced on time and expected are easier to adjust to than those that are off time or unexpected. Reviewing the data reported on the WMTS regarding the timing of transitions, it is important to note that almost two-thirds of transitions had occurred "on-time" for the participants who had endorsed them. However, only 44% of the transitions had been "expected" to occur when they did. The discrepancy between overall timeliness and expectations of the transitions may be due to the reflection process of participants who, in hindsight, may have classified an event as having happened at the "right" time, yet still considered the event to have been "unexpected." This perspective was voiced during focus groups as participants reflected on their transition experiences. Thus, the validity of Schlossberg's original conjectures This is an incomplete list of mathematical conjectures. They are divided into four sections, according to their status in 2007. See also:
tr.v. re·ex·am·ined, re·ex·am·in·ing, re·ex·am·ines 1. To examine again or anew; review. 2. Law To question (a witness) again after cross-examination. , particularly in light of the impact scores assigned to each transition coupled with the discrepancies between timing and expectedness of events. The lowest mean impact was 2.5 on a scale ranging from 1 to 5, indicating that each transition did have an impact ranging from moderate to high. The lack of a relation between timeliness and expectedness of transitions and life satisfaction and wellness was unexpected as well, based on the literature. Schlossberg (1984) emphasized that these two variables were important in shaping one's response to an event, suggesting that off-time and unexpected events would negatively influence well-being. However, based on the lack of significance between these two variables and life satisfaction and wellness in this study, other variables should be explored for their role in contributing to (or detracting from) life satisfaction and overall well-being during midlife life transitions. Another variable, age, was positively related to wellness, while controlling for household income. This may be encouraging to those midlife clients who have sufficient financial resources available to support health-promoting lifestyle choices and should serve as a call for advocacy for professionals who serve clients who are less financially secure. Although the finding related to income and life satisfaction contradicts the adage that "you can't buy happiness," this result was not surprising. Although it seems reasonable that midlife women seeking mental health counseling may present during times of transition and life change (Ivey et al., 2004), the current findings suggest that life satisfaction and wellness may not be negatively affected by these life circumstances. This finding is counterintuitive coun·ter·in·tu·i·tive adj. Contrary to what intuition or common sense would indicate: "Scientists made clear what may at first seem counterintuitive, that the capacity to be pleasant toward a fellow creature is ... , but our results related to income level and life satisfaction and age group and wellness suggest the existence of mitigating factors beyond timing and expectations of events such as an individual's resources (i.e., financial situation, presence of a support network, life experience, etc.). Additional studies are needed to verify or refute re·fute tr.v. re·fut·ed, re·fut·ing, re·futes 1. To prove to be false or erroneous; overthrow by argument or proof: refute testimony. 2. the results of the current study as well as explore other possible moderating or mediating variables. LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The current findings may be due to some unique characteristics of the current participants. Due to the geographical and demographic characteristics of the participants, the results should be considered, and interpreted, with an awareness of how these might affect the analysis of the data. Issues of social desirability in completing the instruments must also be considered as participants may respond in such a way that paints them in the most flattering flat·ter 1 v. flat·tered, flat·ter·ing, flat·ters v.tr. 1. To compliment excessively and often insincerely, especially in order to win favor. 2. light. Generalizability of the research findings will certainly be affected by the voluntary nature of participation, and the fact that the participants were predominantly European American, well-educated, and with relatively high incomes. The procedures were designed to minimize the potential sources of error by methods such as provision of participant anonymity to encourage candid can·did adj. 1. Free from prejudice; impartial. 2. Characterized by openness and sincerity of expression; unreservedly straightforward: In private, I gave them my candid opinion. responses and solicitation solicitation In criminal law, the act of asking, inducing, or directing someone to commit a crime. The person soliciting another becomes an accomplice to the crime. The term also refers to the act of obtaining bribes, as well as to the crime of a prostitute who offers sexual of a diverse group of participants via multiple methods of recruitment, but these limitations of necessity affect interpretation of the results and invite future research that includes a more diverse sample. An important focus for future research is exploration of possible differences between ethnic groups. With the small proportion of ethnically diverse women in this study, group comparisons were not possible. In addition, future studies could be designed to investigate the relation between timing and expectations of each specific transition and life satisfaction and wellness rather than using global measures of timeliness and expectedness as was done in this study. Further investigation of the role of impact scores may help determine whether specific transition conditions exist that do affect outcomes such as life satisfaction and wellness. It is possible that further examination of factors underlying these key variables, for example, specific components of holistic wellness rather than global measures as were used in this study, will provide further understanding of how transitions affect well-being. IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELORS The results of this study revealed the wide range of transitions that the current cohort of midlife women may experience, as well as the variety of ways in which each transition may be experienced, as related to age of occurrence, timeliness, and expectations of the event. It is also important to understand that the impact of these transitions may be felt most strongly in different sectors (i.e., personal, vocational, or social) depending on the individual, which may influence the manner in which the transition affects the person's daily life. The wide range of transitions experienced by the participants indicates that midlife is a time of activity and movement, rather than a period of inactivity and stagnation Stagnation A period of little or no growth in the economy. Economic growth of less than 2-3% is considered stagnation. Sometimes used to describe low trading volume or inactive trading in securities. Notes: A good example of stagnation was the U.S. economy in the 1970s. . These results have implications for mental health counselors who work with adult clients, specifically women and their significant others. Evident in these findings is the large amount of flexibility and variety found in the lives of women between 35 and 65 today. Further, the lack of a relation between personal timeliness, wellness, and life satisfaction suggests that women's well-being and life satisfaction are not compromised by less than ideally timed transitions. Conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , they may be retrospectively making sense of the choices they have made by judging unexpected events as having occurred on-time. Taking into account these findings, implications from this study center around three axes axes [L., Gr.] plural of axis. The straight lines which intersect at right angles and on which graphs are drawn. Usually the horizontal axis is the x-axis and the vertical one the y-axis. Called also axes of reference. : avoidance of cultural stereotypes; utilization of holistic models of wellness; and empowerment of the client. Current cultural stereotypes of the midlife period suggest that women are seen as physically unattractive, barren bar·ren adj. 1. Not producing offspring. 2. Incapable of producing offspring. barren see infertility. barren adjective Gynecology Infertile, sterile, fruitless, inconceivable , asexual asexual /asex·u·al/ (a-sek´shoo-al) having no sex; not sexual; not pertaining to sex. a·sex·u·al adj. 1. Having no evident sex or sex organs; sexless. 2. , menopausal men·o·pause n. The period marked by the natural and permanent cessation of menstruation, occurring usually between the ages of 45 and 55. [New Latin m , depressed, irritable irritable /ir·ri·ta·ble/ (ir´i-tah-b'l) 1. capable of reacting to a stimulus. 2. abnormally sensitive to stimuli. 3. prone to excessive anger, annoyance, or impatience. , frustrated frus·trate tr.v. frus·trat·ed, frus·trat·ing, frus·trates 1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: , and intellectually dull (MacPherson, 1995; Markson & Taylor, 2000). However, results from this study indicate that today's midlife women are living lives full of activity and expansion, as evidenced by the proportionately pro·por·tion·ate adj. Being in due proportion; proportional. tr.v. pro·por·tion·at·ed, pro·por·tion·at·ing, pro·por·tion·ates To make proportionate. large number of women who endorsed transitions such as "Entered committed relationship," "Voluntarily left job," "Relocated to new city, "Returned to school," and "Entered/reentered the job market." Although the mean age for each of these transitions was in the forties, women in their late 50s and early 60s were experiencing these transitions as well. This finding underscores the need for mental health counselors to consider the entire midlife period as a time of growth, development, movement, and challenge. Typically, midlife has been considered a time of introspection and self-evaluation, processes supported by these findings, as the majority of participants had indeed noticed a marked increase in introspection. This degree of introspection may, in part, account for the motivation some women may feel at this stage of their life to make significant life changes and to seek counseling. The transitions experienced in midlife may occur in personal, social, and vocational sectors of life, which suggests that midlife clients may seek mental health counseling to help them deal with issues in any of these areas. Mental health counselors need to be prepared to help their midlife clients cope with changing life circumstances and transitions that will occur individually and collectively in multiple life domains. While past literature suggested that holistic well-being may be negatively affected by transitional changes, the current findings seem to reflect the resiliency of today's midlife women. They experience significant life changes, but continue to cope and adapt. As a consequence, mental health counselors may find it useful to continue to implement interventions that are holistic and strength-based and that have the potential to be effective in addressing multiple life arenas while focusing on positive outcomes. By determining existing strengths and areas for potential growth, clients and their counselors will be better prepared to work together within a wellness-based paradigm in which women can be encouraged to make decisions that enhance their sense of well-being. Based on the current findings, it may be important to assess the actual impact of the transitions on the life satisfaction and well-being of individual clients, rather than make assumptions based on existing literature. As the age norms for life events begin to blur blur (blur) indistinctness, clouding, or fogging. spectacle blur the indistinct vision with spectacles occurring after removal of contact lenses, especially non–gas-permeable lenses; it is , women who are making now-traditional, but once non-traditional choices may be confronted with opposition from family members or others who feel their choices are inappropriate. Understanding that midlife can be a time of new developments, rather than a time of closing down, may enable mental health counselors to normalize normalize to convert a set of data by, for example, converting them to logarithms or reciprocals so that their previous non-normal distribution is converted to a normal one. the experience and reactions of significant others. Mental health counselors may encourage midlife clients to opt for transitions that are different from the previous generation and support these clients in their choices, thus empowering clients to make non-traditional choices. In conclusion, this study has provided a description of the transitions experienced by contemporary midlife women and measures of the timeliness, expectedness, and impact of those transitions. Underscoring the assertion that age cohorts typically experience midlife differently (Staudinger & Bluck, 2001), the findings from this study, specifically the lack of a relation between life satisfaction, wellness, and transitions suggest that today's midlife women may indeed differ markedly from previous generations. Future studies that address these same variables, as well as investigate the existence of any mitigating variables, are needed. Additional studies are needed that overcome the limitations of the existing study and provide further explanations of the current findings. Mental health counselors can use the current results to better understand the circumstances of midlife women and the nature and impact of the transitions they experience, and to encourage and support their clients through recognition of the flexibility that is reflected in their ability to handle multiple and significant changing-life circumstances. REFERENCES Aldwin, C. M., & Levinson, M. R. (2001). Stress, coping, and health at midlife: A developmental perspective. In M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development (pp. 188-213). New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : John Wiley John Wiley may refer to:
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A period of psychological doubt and anxiety that some people experience in middle age. midlife crisis ." Motivation and Emotion, 24, 85-102. Suzanne Degges-White, Ph.D., is with the Counseling and Development, Purdue University Calumet Purdue University Calumet is a regional campus within the Purdue University system that is located in Hammond, Indiana in the Northwest Indiana portion of the Chicago metropolitan area. , 2200 169th St., Hammond, IN 46323. E-mail: dwhites@calumet Calumet, region, United States Calumet (kăl`y  mĕt'), industrialized region of NW Ind. and NE Ill., along the south shore of Lake Michigan. .purdue.edu. Jane E. Myers, Ph.D., is with
the Counseling and Educational Development, University of North Carolina
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jemyers@uncg.edu.
Table 1
Women's Midlife Transition Survey Responses
Age
Transition n Mean SD
Noticed physical signs of aging 200 43.0 5.9
Entered perimenopause 140 43.9 4.6
Marked increase in introspection 122 42.5 6.1
Entered committed relationship 99 42.0 5.3
Voluntarily left job 98 43.7 6.4
Relocated to new city 90 43.0 6.3
Returned to school 88 41.8 5.1
Ended committed relationship 84 43.7 6.2
Loss of parent/parental figure 75 42.5 5.6
Entered or re-entered job market 69 43.3 6.4
Child(ren) moved away from home 66 43.4 4.3
Completed menopause 64 48.6 5.7
Onset of major illness/disease 60 42.3 6.5
Job advancement/promotion 60 43.3 5.8
Loss of siblings, close friends 54 43.7 7.0
Laid-off or fired from job 47 43.9 6.1
Became a grandparent 42 48.0 5.7
Renegotiated sexual identity 38 43.1 5.0
Lost last parent/parental figure 35 45.1 6.0
Became caregiver for older relatives 35 45.4 7.3
Started a "blended family" 28 42.4 4.6
Became a parent 21 37.8 3.0
Adult child(ren) returned home 21 46.1 4.2
Loss of partner/spouse 17 44.0 6.9
Retired from job 17 54.9 6.6
Loss of a child 10 41.7 5.1
Became a custodial grandparent 1 46.0 0.0
On-time Expected
Transition n % n %
Noticed physical signs of aging 122 62.9 116 59.2
Entered perimenopause 89 64.0 77 34.4
Marked increase in introspection 95 80.5 48 40.0
Entered committed relationship 80 81.6 23 24.5
Voluntarily left job 73 75.3 62 63.9
Relocated to new city 59 67.0 59 67.0
Returned to school 63 74.1 57 67.9
Ended committed relationship 37 44.0 27 32.5
Loss of parent/parental figure 16 21.6 31 41.3
Entered or re-entered job market 49 72.1 51 76.1
Child(ren) moved away from home 55 83.3 54 81.8
Completed menopause 40 63.5 38 61.3
Onset of major illness/disease 2 3.4 2 3.4
Job advancement/promotion 53 93.0 41 70.7
Loss of siblings, close friends 4 7.7 10 18.9
Laid-off or fired from job 13 28.3 11 23.9
Became a grandparent 28 66.7 24 57.1
Renegotiated sexual identity 24 64.9 6 15.8
Lost last parent/parental figure 12 35.3 16 47.1
Became caregiver for older relatives 20 57.1 15 42.9
Started a "blended family" 20 71.4 10 35.7
Became a parent 13 61.9 14 66.7
Adult child(ren) returned home 4 19.0 4 19.0
Loss of partner/spouse 2 11.8 1 5.9
Retired from job 11 64.7 11 64.7
Loss of a child 0 0.0 0 0.0
Became a custodial grandparent 0 0.0 0 0.0
Impact
Transition Mean SD
Noticed physical signs of aging 2.6 1.3
Entered perimenopause 2.5 1.3
Marked increase in introspection 3.9 1.2
Entered committed relationship 3.9 1.2
Voluntarily left job 4.6 0.7
Relocated to new city 4.3 0.9
Returned to school 4.4 0.8
Ended committed relationship 4.5 0.9
Loss of parent/parental figure 3.9 1.2
Entered or re-entered job market 4.0 1.0
Child(ren) moved away from home 3.5 1.3
Completed menopause 2.7 1.5
Onset of major illness/disease 4.4 1.1
Job advancement/promotion 3.7 1.0
Loss of siblings, close friends 4.1 1.0
Laid-off or fired from job 4.5 0.8
Became a grandparent 4.2 1.3
Renegotiated sexual identity 4.7 0.8
Lost last parent/parental figure 4.0 0.9
Became caregiver for older relatives 3.9 1.1
Started a "blended family" 4.0 1.0
Became a parent 4.7 0.6
Adult child(ren) returned home 3.7 1.0
Loss of partner/spouse 4.9 0.3
Retired from job 4.3 0.9
Loss of a child 4.7 0.7
Became a custodial grandparent 5.0 0.0
Table 2
Total Wellness and SWLS by Income Level
Total
Wellness SWLS
Income Mean SD Mean SD
Less than $20,000 (n = 21) 78.3 5.6 4.1 1.6
$20,000-$39,000 (n = 45) 77.3 8.4 4.6 1.3
$40,000-$59,000 (n = 48) 76.4 7.4 4.1 1.4
$60,000-$79,000 (n = 36) 78.8 6.4 5.2 1.2
$80,000 and over (n = 64) 79.3 6.3 5.3 1.2
Total Sample (N = 224) 78.0 7.2 4.7 1.4
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