Titus: epistle of religious revitalization.

Abstract

James D. Miller (138) contends that the Epistle of Titus has "no driving concern, no consistent focus of interest" and appears "like an anthology of traditions, many arranged mechanically together by topic, some simply juxtaposed." The purpose of this study is to ascertain to what extent the Epistle of Titus demonstrates some concise strategy or logical ordering to the materials presented. It is assumed that writers have some overarching purpose in mind in order to decide what should be included or excluded in a manuscript to achieve the intended objective. Thus, this analysis is concerned with the text as text rather than any literary, historical, or other method of interpretation. This analysis suggests that the Epistle of Titus is organized in the same six-phase-sequence that is found in thousands of case studies of "revitalization movements" around the world.

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The processes of disintegration and reorganization are an integral part of all societies--the warp and woof of cultural continuity. Cultural values, beliefs, and symbols change with the passing of time. Change produces stress and distortion, and if unchecked, may lead to cultural extinction. All societies must, therefore, continually adapt to survive. Alfred North Whitehead warns:

   The art of free society consists in the maintenance of the symbolic code,
   and secondly, in the fearlessness of revision.... Those societies which
   cannot combine reverence to their symbols with freedom of revision must
   ultimately decay [Bennis & Slater: 70].

Behavioral scientists have long noted the process of social change whereby societies experience "successful innovation of whole cultural systems." Wallace (1956: 264-65) classifies this kind of change under the general rubric of a "revitalization movement" and defines it as "a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of a society to construct a more satisfying culture." This concept implies that at some previous time, people found their culture to be meaningful, believable, and satiable. But over a period of time the growing gap between old social expectations and new social behavior, between old cultural values and new ones, and between local autonomy and foreign domination frequently increase cultural distortions. Unresolved, this type of confusion and disorganization may contribute to ethnic extinction.

Wallace identifies five common stages through which all revitalization movements must pass to reverse this trend. One, the revitalization process begins with a "steady state" characterized by social conformity, acceptance of a common set of values, the fulfillment of individual needs, and the resolution of social conflicts. Eventually, internal changes brought about by social, economic, or technological innovations, and external forces, frequently result in increased social competition and ethnic conflicts giving rise to increased social disruptions and decreased levels of individual satisfaction with their present system contributing to a second stage--referred to as a "period of increased individual stress."

If the internal social mechanisms fail to reduce this increasing level of anxiety, then members will experience rising levels of stress, causing the revitalization movement to evolve into a third stage, called "the period of cultural distortion." This third stage is characterized by disillusionment, apathy, cultural deterioration, decreased birth rates, increased death rates, and internal factionalism. Fortunately, during such distressful periods of social unrest some individual frequently emerges with a creative cultural plan for resolving the social malaise, introducing a fourth stage of dynamic change designated as "the period of revitalization" (Wallace 1956: 268-70). Successful social adaptation and institutionalization of the revitalization plan produces a new steady state that culminates in an ongoing spiral of continuity and change as societies adapt to innovations.

Revitalization movements generally occur during periods of increased social conflict and change caused by colonialism and urbanization that give rise to increased confrontation between competing groups. That is, these first-hand interactions between dominant urban or colonial societies with subordinate peasant and tribal societies frequently produce a clash of values that contributes to intolerable levels of individual and social stress. Quinn (21) depicts the first century CE social milieu as an era of conflicting social and cultural forces, such as class conflicts, ethnic competition, sexual discrimination, apostolic teachings, Jewish influences, and "the ambient Hellenistic and Roman culture from which they all came." Literally thousands of examples of revitalization movements exist in the ethnographic literature (Barrett; Hiebert: 388; Tollefson 1976; Wallace 1972).

Thus cultural revitalization is one adaptive social response whereby the past and present values, customs, and beliefs--which produce dissonance arising from the distortions that exist between them--are analyzed and recombined into a new synthesis, a new mazeway, or a new Gestalt. Wallace (1956: 270-75) describes six phases that occur in this fourth stage of revitalization movements. In the first phase of religious revitalization, the "mazeway reformation" phase, a visionary experiences a radical change in personality, assumes a new role in society, devises a new plan for reorganizing society and proposes a new order that promises new meaning and purpose for living. In the second, "communication," phase, the visionary successfully transmits the mental blueprint for social and cultural change to other members in the society.

Third, in the "organization" phase, the visionary appoints leaders and organizes the followers into an effective social movement to implement the proposed changes. This is followed by a fourth or "adaptation" phase, in which the new organization devises strategies to counter internal resistance from those who feel threatened by the sweeping changes or external confrontations from powerful groups who are hostile to the changes. In the fifth phase, referred to as "cultural transformation," the vision of the reformer becomes "owned" by the membership and transformed into the daily behavior of the people. Since many of these changes do not come easily, the leadership needs to monitor and encourage the followers to complete the process by integrating the new values, beliefs, and behavior into the cultural norms of the people in the sixth or "routinization" phase. Over a period of time, these movements generally evolve into a "new steady state period" characterized by a new period of relative social tranquillity and thus the process continues in another cycle of adaptation and change. Linton (230) suggests that while "all societies unconsciously seek to perpetuate their own culture," this process may become an explicit endeavor "when a society becomes conscious that there are cultures other than its own and that the existence of its own culture is threatened." Cohn (2) notes that urbanization forces people to form organizations and to manipulate their cultural values in order to compete for scarce resources. Royce (7) states that "no ethnic group can maintain a believable (viable) identity without signs, symbols, and underlying values that point to a distinctive identity." The Epistle of Titus describes the religious revitalization process among the Cretan believers engaged in the task of perpetuating their faith in a hostile environment.

Biblical Examples of Revitalization

Two biblical examples of a revitalization movement are Nehemiah's in the fifth century BCE and the apostles' in the first century CE. The Book of Nehemiah is essentially the story of a man with a vision of a restored community of God--a man who both organized the people to reconstruct a wall and gates around Jerusalem to secure the community and restored the Mosaic Law as the dominant cultural force in society. Subjugated by the imperial rule of Persia and surrounded by hostile nations (Neh 4:1-23), Nehemiah rallied the community of Jerusalem to assert their elements of cultural distinctiveness, to reorganize their society to conform with their historic identity, and to restore their religious faith (Tollefson 1987; Tollefson 1989; Tollefson & Williamson). In the process, the community of Jerusalem unfroze their old world-view (Neh 8:1-18), modified it to better conform to the principles of the Torah (Neh 9:1-37), and froze the revised world-view for posterity (Neh 9:38-10:39). This new ethos essentially persisted until the coming of Jesus Christ contributed to radical changes in the community of God.

The apostle Paul became the primary catalyst for this process and served as the main messenger to the Gentiles (Acts 13:1-28:31). Paul's life shared many of the historical features found in the Nehemiah movement. Nehemiah was a Jew with Persian citizenship educated in a foreign city under the control of the Persian Empire, while Paul was a Jew with Roman citizenship educated in a Roman city. Both leaders demonstrated vital concern for the Torah and were dedicated to its social implications; both were given crucial protection by their respective imperial governments; both confronted considerable internal and external opposition to their leadership; and both sought to integrate these changes into the institutional norms of their respective societies.

A period of increased cultural dissonance caused by social stratification, economic exploitation, foreign domination, slavery, and moral decay preceded each leader. A major difference between the two social movements was that Nehemiah sought to get the community of Jerusalem back in step with their historic "prescriptions of the law" (Fensham: 268) whereas Paul led a revitalization movement to integrate the teachings of Christ with the First Testament teachings for Cretan believers (Titus 1:3; 2:9). Nehemiah directed a social movement to gain righteousness by the law; Paul directed a social movement to gain righteousness by faith in Christ (Rom 9:30-31). The Nehemiah narrative gives a description of a revitalization movement after the process was completed, while the Titus text describes a revitalization movement during its process.

Paul was uniquely qualified to lead this revitalization movement because his Pharisee father taught him from infancy to revere the law and to follow its rigorous rites, as well as to defend it against heresy. Paul's Roman citizenship, liberal Greek education in Tarsus, rigorous religious instruction in the Jewish law under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), and confrontation with the risen Christ on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:3-15) forced him to reevaluate his historic beliefs. Thus Paul, the former defender of the "works of the Law" and tyrannizer of the early Christians, became the champion of the "faith of Abraham" and one of the most persecuted of believers.

Revitalization Movements and Change

Revitalization movements frequently contribute to social disruptions because of their revolutionary changes that cause the members of a society to replace old social patterns of behavior with new ones. Schaller (89) contends that this unrest is imperative because "without discontent with the present situation there can be no planned, internally motivated and directed intentional change." That is, planned, structured and directed change is the result of people who want to change enough to make it happen. The actual life of Jesus Christ differed significantly from the social expectations for the coming Messiah, increasing the level of individual stress and cognitive dissonance among the people contributing to his crucifixion (Matt 21:23-23:39; Luke 23:1-45; John 12:47-57).

Social scientists use the term cognitive dissonance to refer to those inconsistencies in behavior in which actions do not logically follow or grow out of stated beliefs. It suggests that "when people have in mind two or more psychologically inconsistent cognitions or beliefs, they experience a state of arousal which is unpleasant, and which they will try to reduce by altering one or more of the cognitions" (Sabini: 626). Hence, "the pressure of dissonance leads to actions to reduce it" (Festinger: 18). The apostles skillfully used First Testament prophecies about the Messiah to demonstrate that the life, authoritative teachings, and mode of death were consistent with the "Law and the Prophets," increasing the magnitude of cognitive dissonance among the people to an intolerable level.

Paul's writings suggest that he had no intention of establishing a social movement independent of the First Testament community, but rather a revitalization of that community. Paul wrote to the Galatians: "The Scriptures foresaw that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, and announced the gospel in advance to Abraham: `All nations will be blessed through you'" (Gal 3:8, NIV). Therefore, Paul declared, "If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise" (Gal 3:29) because "it is not Abraham's natural descendants who are God's children, but those who are made children by the promise are counted his true descendants" (Rom 9:8, Beck's trans.). Paul also compared the Gentiles to branches of a wild olive tree that "were grafted in among the others [Jews] and now share in the nourishing sap of the olive root" (Rom 11:17). Consequently, Paul perceived the apostolic faith as complementary to and a refinement of the First Testament community (2 Cor 3:5-18; Heb 1:1-13:25).

While the authorship of Titus continues to be scrutinized, reliable scholarship suggests that it is reasonable to treat the letter to Titus as "real" rather than "fictional" since it is "no more problematic" to be fitted "within the context of Paul's own lifetime and ministry ... than such undoubted letters as Galatians, Philemon, and Philippians" (Johnson: 26, 32). Miller (145) adds, "There is good reason to believe" that Titus "incorporates genuine Pauline notes" written "at sometime during Paul's missionary activity." Dibelius and Conzelman (152) reason that Paul and Titus may have been in Crete (1:5) and either founded or found a Christian congregation there.

Mazeway Reformulation Phase; Titus 1:1-3

Wallace (1956: 270) suggests that religious revitalization movements generally begin with a supernatural appearance to a single individual who comes to the realization that the old way of life is passing away and so "interests shift to a god, the community, and a new way." Kelly (225) observes that Paul's opening statement to Titus "defines more completely than any other Second Testament passage the scope and function of apostleship, as well as glancing briefly at the nature of his message." Houlden (139-40) views this opening statement as the intended "epitome of the writer's teaching" and perception "of the true faith." Karris (105) concludes that Paul's introduction to his associate, Titus, is also a letter of communication to the churches on Crete that provides "an advanced summary of the letter."

An analysis of Titus reveals six phases that characterize revitalization movements, including Paul's attempt to integrate his vision of the risen Christ into the daily life of Cretan believers. In this opening statement, Paul makes two significant claims for his religious authority: his assertion as a "servant of God" and his declaration as an "apostle of Jesus Christ" (Titus 1:1a). In other writings, Paul identifies himself as a "servant of Jesus Christ," but in this epistle he claims for himself the First Testament honorific title of "servant of God," which identifies him with such holy men of old as Abraham (Ps 105:42), Moses (Josh 1:1-2), Joshua (24:29), David (2 Sam 7:5), and the prophets (Jer 7:25; Amos 3:7), who spoke and acted "in God's name and at God's command" (Bassler 1996: 182-83; Griffiths 1996: 129). Paul also extended the servant motif to apply to the Cretan believers' conduct so that they in turn might demonstrate their loyalty, devotion, and faithfulness to one another in contrast to the "insubordination" that characterized many Cretans (1:10). Indeed, Christ set the example when he took upon himself "the form of a servant" (Phil 2:7) and gave his life in service to others (Mark 10:45).

Paul coupled this distinctive First Testament title with the superlative Second Testament title of "apostle"--a commission he received from Christ on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:3-16) and based his apostleship on "the command of God our Savior," who could not lie (Titus 1:3b). Even the Greeks attributed to deity the freedom from "falsehood" (Dibelius & Conzelmann: 131). Thus Paul's credentials suggest that this epistle is as authoritative as any other communication from God in either the First or Second Testament periods. Paul's instructions and teachings were therefore trustworthy for mentoring the ministry of Titus, for instructing Cretan believers, and for refuting the claims of the false teachers in the "circumcision party" (1:10).

In addition, Paul described his mission to the believers on the Island of Crete: "To bring faith to those God has chosen and to teach them to know the truth" (1:1, NLT). Apostolic truth encapsulates those tenets of faith consistently taught by the apostles in the first sermon preached by Peter (Acts 2:21-36), the decisions of the Council at Jerusalem (Acts 15:6-11), and other apostolic writings (2 Tim 3:16). To increase faith in Christ means to inspire personal confidence and trust in the sinless life, sacrificial death, and supernatural resurrection of Christ to the extent that individuals are willing to commit their lives increasingly to the pursuit of godliness (1:1; 2:11-14; 3:4-8). Paul suggests that his message from God in the promise of God who "never lies" (1:2) connects "this blessed hope" to the second coming of Jesus Christ (2:13) and to their privilege of becoming heirs of eternal life (3:7).

Furthermore, Paul uses the terms God our Savior (1:3) and Christ our Savior (1:4) interchangeably in Titus, thereby suggesting a functional equivalence between Jesus and GOd as well as a continuity between the First Testament community and the Second Testament community (Isa 43:3, 11; 45:15, 21; 60:16; Hos 13:4). This usage seems to be intentional because "Paul uses the title, soter, first for God in 1:3 and then for Jesus in 1:4 ... again for God in 2:10 and Jesus in 2:13; and finally for GOd in 3:4 and Jesus in 3:6" (Johnson: 218-19). Thus the term savior is used six times in Titus: three times referring to God and three times referring to Jesus.

This epistle "identifies the salvation that comes through Jesus as the fulfillment of that promised by God" (Johnson: 219). Paul used the Greek term Theos (God) for the First Testament Jewish monotheistic Creator and the Greek term Chrisms for the promised universal Messiah of the First Testament to assert that they were of the same essence, thus claiming that both God and Christ were the same source for this revitalization message and mission. In this manner Paul positioned his letter in the mainstream of divine revelation, connected it to the historic community of God, and conveyed these concepts in the vernacular of the believers in the emerging churches in Crete.

Communication Phase: Titus 1:4

A practical vision for revitalizing any society is merely an exercise in individual futility unless it is successfully communicated to other members in the community. The communication phase in Titus (1:4) is limited to one verse because it probably took place earlier and it would have been redundant to repeat it in this epistle. Following Paul's presentation of his credentials as a servant and spokesperson for God, he proceeds to claim Titus as an heir to that authority and an associate in the "common faith" (1:4). In this manner Paul delegates sufficient authority to Titus to appoint leaders and to complete the process of consolidating the emerging faith of the believers. Elsewhere, Paul strengthens the credentials of Titus by referring to him as "my partner and fellow worker" (2 Cor 8:23, NIV) and makes references to their cooperative ventures (Gal 2:1, 3; 2 Cor 2:1-4; 2 Cor 7:13-15; 2 Cor 8:16-17; 2 Tim 4:10).

By including the participation of Titus in their "common faith," Paul extols him as a fellow believer, commends his service to the believers on Crete, and ties Titus to the broader Second Testament community scattered throughout the Mediterranean region. Later, Paul's explicit support would become crucial in the confrontation with the opposition (1:10-16). And since they shared a "common faith," they also shared a common purpose to aid in the spread of the gospel and assist other leaders (3:12-14).

In the second half of this short communication, Paul uses two key words of considerable significance to the revitalization effort: grace and peace. The term grace, charis, has a long usage in Greek culture meaning "undeserved acceptance and love received from another" (Pohill) and occurs some "170 times in the New Testament" (Easton 1960: 1290). Pohill suggests that "Christians transposed" the meaning of this term, making it virtually "synonymous with the gospel of God's gift of unmerited salvation in Jesus Christ." Paul used the term "twice as frequently" in his epistles "as the rest of the New Testament writers combined." Paul, who thought he was doing the will of God in persecuting the early church, discovered in a momentous confrontation that he was resisting the risen Lord (Acts 9:4-5). Indeed, in that desperate moment Paul experienced the radical grace of God, and so the zealous persecutor of the church be. came a prominent preacher in it. In turn, Paul offered this same grace (Titus 2:14) for salvation to all people (Titus 2:11), along with the promise of eternal life (Titus 3:7).

The second term, peace, shalom, a favorite Hebrew expression used in greetings and farewells, referred to health, soundness, prosperity, and welfare. Judeans applied this term externally to nations who experienced the absence of warfare and internally to individuals as a gift that God gave to those who placed their trust in him (Isa 26:3). The Second Testament Judean writers used the Greek term eirene for shalom, possessing much the same meaning and usage to apply to the gospel. Walker (2293) describes the peace that Christ brings to the believing community as the "spiritual peace from and with God, peace in the heart, peace as the disposition of spirit." The use of peace was extensively used in preaching the gospel, in the life of the Christian community, and in admonishing believers to seek peace with God to become peacemakers in society (Rom 12:18; Matt 5:9).

While no definitive data are given describing the origin of the church on the Island of Crete, there are at least four plausible scenarios. One possible explanation might be that some Cretan responded to Jewish immigrants, since Moses was "preached in every city from earliest time and is read in the synagoges on every Sabbath" (Acts 15:21). Roman records refer to a Jewish community on the Island of Crete by the first century BCE in an appeal by the government for fair treatment for Jewish minorities (1 Macc 15:23). The biblical account also states that devout Judeans from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, heard the witness of the apostles, and may have carried the message back to the Judean community on the Island of Crete (Acts 2:11).

A second scenario suggests that Paul may have sent an associate or delegate to Crete to establish the early church, much as he had sent them to Epaphras and later to Tychicus in the church at Colossae (Col 1:7; 4:12). Such letters of delegation were common in the Roman Empire at this period of history (Johnson: 106-07). A third possibility might be that Paul "carried out an extensive missionary tour of Crete" (Kelly: 35) after his first imprisonment, when he may have drafted the letter to Titus revealing his plans to spend the winter at Nicopolis (3:12). And a fourth scenario suggests that Paul made a "post-Acts 28" ministry to Crete as "the only convincing historical occasion for his authoring" of Titus and thus "enables the historian to best explain the internal pecularities" such as the "different terminology, variation of scene and theme and their evidence for a different and more influential amanuensis" (Ellis: 252).

Organization Phase: Titus 1:5-9

Following an effective communication of the revitalization vision, followers are organized into action groups to implement it. To do this, the catalyst must recruit capable leaders who are committed to the movement, willing to defend it against opposition, qualified to teach its creed, and demonstrating leadership skills. Elders appeared in the early church community without any explanation (Acts 11:30), probably because they were "the common officer of guidance and leadership" in the local synagogues and so their type of leadership naturally extended to the early churches in Acts (Glasscock: 71). Consequently, little was said about qualifications for elders until Paul began organizing Gentile churches with the help of Timothy and Titus. In doing this, Paul seemed to borrow some Judean qualifications, combining them with qualifications from traditional Greek "overseers," forming new criteria for the selection of Gentile leaders.

Kelly (231-32) contends that the role of elder (1:5-6) and that of bishop/overseer (1:7) refer to two different ranks of leadership in the Cretan church, with the bishops/overseers being selected from the ranks of elders as the "executive officers ... [who] performed the ministerial and pastoral duties required." Knight (3) disagrees, asserting that an analysis of the usage of these two terms (elders and bishops) in Second Testament writings (Acts 11:30; 14:23; 15:2, 4, 6, 22, 23; 16:4; 20:17, 18; Phil 1:1; 1 Tim 3:1, 2, 5, 17; Titus 1:6, 7; 1 Pet 5:1; Jas 5:14) suggest that the two different words are used "to designate one and the same group of offices in the church."

Knight (4) explains that the term elder reflects Judean background and usage referring to "maturity and authority," while bishop or overseer (episkopeo), taken from the Greek-speaking world, designates elders "in terms of their particular responsibility of having the oversight and care of the church." Knight (5) further suggests that elders/bishops (overseers) are those who have spiritual oversight in the church, such as ruling and teaching, in contrast to deacons, who lack these functions. He continues (8) by stating that within the office of elder or class of elders, writers distinguish between two orders: the "preaching or teaching elders and ... the ruling elders" (1 Tim 5:17; 1 Cor 12:28-31; Eph 4:11). While Knight (6-8) recognizes that all elders are called to teach (1 Tim 3:2), he suggests that only a few elders, who are gifted in teaching and preaching, exercise the ministry full-time and so deserve remuneration (1 Tim 5:17).

Since the Cretan church was composed largely of household groups, Paul based his criteria for Cretan elders on the ability to successfully manage a local houshold (1:6). Elders were to be "blameless" (well respected in the community), "have one wife" (model of a successful marriage), possess "believing children" (able to lead one's children to faith), "avoid loose living" (demonstrate social integrity), and "not be guilty of insubordination" (be willing to submit to authority).

The Greek terms used in the Second Testament describe the role of elders as follows poimaino--to shepherd a group--is used eleven times; proistemi--to manage or administer--is found eight times; and hegeomai--to motivate as a leader--occurs twenty-seven times (Small: 22-23). Small (22) describes elders as spiritually mature individuals who are the "appointed guardians of the total welfare of a congregation, including that of each member of the congregation" (Titus 1:7 and Heb 13:17). Glasscock (76-77) remarks that elders "must decide for the good of the congregation in matters of doctrine, personal conflicts, and moral and ethical dilemmas, as well as direct the overall plans and programs of the church ... they are to be compassionate, merciful towards all men, deal with any potential sin, pray with the sick ... protect the flock, rule, feed, and care for them."

In addition to the household qualifications for elders, Paul (1:7) describes five vices that disqualify a person from becoming an elder: (1) arrogance--lack of open-mindedness, (2) irascibleness--easily aroused or angered, (3) sobriety--refraining from overindulging, (4) violence--demonstrating strong emotions, and (5) greed--seeking dishonest gain. Paul (1:8) lists six virtues to be sought in an elder: (1) hospitality--quick to entertain others in the home, (2) zeal in the pursuit of goodness, (3) temperance in thought, actions, or feelings, (4) justice--upright and fair with others, (5) righteousness--holy and devout, (6) restraint--disciplined and self-controlled.

In general, the criteria for Cretan elders represent basic moral characteristics that could easily apply to leaders in most societies. That is, this list of qualifications would resonate well with Aristotle's notion of virtue as "the mean between extremes" or the traditional Spartan values of "prudence, justice, temperance, fortitude, and obedience." These basic qualifications may be indicative of the low level of civility found on the Island of Crete (1:10-13) and say something about the level of maturity of the believers in this infant church. In addition, the requirement that elders should have believing children suggests that Christianity may not have been around long enough for that to be a common phenomenon (Johnson: 223).

Nevertheless, the tasks assigned to Cretan elders (1:9) are unique to believers: requiring them (1) to demonstrate an adequate understanding of and commitment to the basic teachings of the gospel, (2) to effectively instruct new converts in these beliefs, and (3) to refute those who opposed these teachings. That is, elders must grasp and teach the distinctive tenets of the emerging church in order adequately to maintain their group boundaries against those who questioned them from within and attacked them from without. To accomplish these objectives, elders must be serious students of "God's Word, able and willing to instruct, reprove, encourage, and protect God's people" (Glasscock: 77).

Adaptation Phase: Titus 1:10-16

Effective action groups invariably confront opposition, because revitalization movements are "revolutionary organizations" that advocate social and cultural changes that are frequently resisted (Wallace 1956: 274). This resistance comes from powerful internal factions that feel threatened by the proposed changes as well as from dominant external forces that seek to maintain their supremacy by preserving the status quo. In response to these conflicts, revitalization movements need to create adaptive strategies to maintain their existence.

The newly appointed Cretan elders were confronted with the formidable task of defending the believers from opponents who were deeply entrenched in the local culture and sought to undermine the faith (1:10-16). Elders were given the specific task of contending with "rebellious people" (1:10) who were "running whole households by teaching things they ought not to teach" (1:11). Not only were these people contentious and subversive, they were also "detestable, disobedient and unfit for any good deed" (1:16). The elders were therefore instructed to "silence" them (1:11) while at the same time remembering that they themselves were once like them (3:3).

Paul viewed the Cretan opposition in enigmatic terms: first, as "unbelievers" who were "detestable and disobedient, and worthless for any good deed (1:16, N.A.S.) and second, as candidates to be considered for regeneration and inclusion within the community of believers (3:3-5). This cultural clash was exacerbated by Cretan cultural beliefs and practices noted for their incivility and those "Gentiles" who, "under the influence of Jewish teachers, wanted to follow Jewish law" (Johnson: 227-28).

A Cretan prophet suggested (1:12) that "Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons" (see Dibelius & Conzelman: 138-39), to which Paul seems to add:

   There is truth in this testimonial of theirs! Don't hesitate to reprimand
   them sharply, for you want them to be sound and healthy Christians, with a
   proper contempt for Jewish fairy tales and orders issued by men who have
   foresaken the path of truth [1:13-14, Phillips trans.].

This translation demonstrates a cogent understanding of the insidious activity of the opposition in their aggressive pursuit of perverting the faith of the fledgling believers and the need for Paul's admonition for swift and stringent action.

Popular folklore suggests that by repeating and affirming the Cretan prophet, Paul becomes guilty of "crass anti-Cretan prejudice." Thiselton (207-08) suggests that Paul's statement is an example of meta-language whereby the writer attributes the statement to a local prophet who "does not assert a contingent state of affairs about Cretans; but rather a "self-contradictory" proposition that may function to endorse either "the truth or falsity of the liar's assertion, and thus endorses neither." That is, it is the writer not the reader, "who has uttered `p' and not `p' in the same breath." While such liar paradoxes were somewhat common in Greek philosophy, the context suggests that Paul used the statement to alert Titus to a critical conflict between two competing systems of values.

It seems illogical and self-defeating to insert a liar paradox into this section of the narrative, implying that the opposition was nothing more than an illusion--a figment of some "bishop's" imagination. Paul described general Cretan behavior in such cryptic terms as corrupting others (1:9), "empty talkers and deceivers" (1:10), willing "to do anything for financial gain" (1:11), "morally corrupt" (1:13), and preoccupied with "rules of purity" (1:15).

Polybius, a second-century BCE Greek historian, seems to collaborate the prophet's description of the Cretan culture, explaining that their

   laws go as far as possible in letting them acquire land to the extent of
   their power, as the saying is, and money is held in such high honour among
   them that its acquisition is not only regarded as necessary, but as most
   honourable. So much in fact do sorded love of gain and lust for wealth
   prevail among them, that the Cretans are the only people in the world in
   whose eyes no gain is disgraceful.... Cretans, owing to their ingrained
   lust of wealth are involved in constant broils both public and private, and
   in murders and civil wars [6.46].

Still, Paul's willingness to support the statement of the Cretan prophet comparing the people to "evil beasts" is dehumanizing and uncouth, given our present cultural orientation (1:12-13).

Moreover, Stegemann (280-91) suggests that the Titus text treats the opposition as deviant groups and labels them in derogatory terms such as "Cretans" or links them to "Judaism" in order to transfer the prejudices of these groups to the opposition (1:12-14). Stegemann (293) concludes that the text of 1:10-16 contains statements of "anti-Semitic" and "racist" prejudice against the opposition. In addition he asserts (278) that Paul and his followers exhibited "zenophobic prejudices." Indeed, the practice of defining opposition groups in deviant terms to rally the local "troops" in order to maintain group boundaries and promote group cohesion is well documented in the scientific literature (Barth: 13-16). Nevertheless, the text states specific diagnostic statements about the negative behavior and beliefs of the opposition groups that were offensive or contrary to the revitalization message.

The social dynamics of the revitalization movement in Crete, the context of Paul's revitalization message, and statements in his other writings all seem to contradict the accusations of Stegemann. If Paul were anti-Semitic, would he have readily identified himself as an "Israelite, of the seed of Abraham, and of the tribe of Benjamin" during a royal hearing (Rom 11:1; Acts 22:3)? Would Paul have indicated his love and affection for the Jews when he wrote, "I could wish that I myself were accursed from Christ for my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh (Rom 9:3)? These statements are hardly the sentiments and aspirations of an anti-Semite. Paul had a disagreement with his people over righteousness by works of the law vs. by faith (Rom 9:31-32), but he never gave up on his efforts to convert some of them (Rom 10:1).

Rather, Paul advocated that all believers in Christ become "Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the Promise" (Gal 3:28-29). In addition, if Paul and the eschatological community of the early church were suffering from xenophobia, would he and they have so aggressively engaged individuals and groups from other nations and races in dialogue and discussions--as he did on many occasions (Acts 9:29-30; 17:17-19; 26:19-20)? Paul declared that God's grace "has appeared for the salvation of all peoples" (Titus 2:14) and that believers should "show perfect courtesy toward all peoples" (Titus 3:2). Consider Paul's Epistle to the Colossians, where he identifies a cosmopolitan mix of individuals (Wall" 171-74): Tychicus from Asia Minor (4:7), the slave Onesimus, whom he met in prison (4:9), Judean believers Aristarchus, Mark, and Justus (4:10-11), Greek believers Luke, Demas, and Epaphras (4:12-14), and Colossian Nymphas, who hosted the group (4:15).

A more productive method in the analysis of the opposition (1:10-16) might be to examine them in light of the revitalization vision (1:1-3). Paul began with the claim that his message was derived directly from God, who commissioned him to instruct believers. This supernatural revelation served as Paul's criterion for determining who did and who did not belong to the community of God. Paul taught: "The division between Jew and Gentile, slave and free, male and female, has been abolished in the Body of christ" (Padgett: 39-40). Hence, his message was theocentric rather than ethnocentric, anti-semitic, or any other similar label (2 Tim 3:16). It was a message of "thus saith the Lord," and Paul was ready to live and die by it (Acts 20:24; 21:13; Phil 1:21-22; 2 tim 4:6-7).

Within this revitalization vision, all people were condemned as sinners (Rom 3:23), but God's infinite grace and mercy extended pardon and eternal life to all who would accept "the gift of God" (Eph 2:4-10; Titus 2:11). Consequently, all people were classified into two categories: they were either unregenerate sinners or regenerate saints (Rom 3:23; 1 Cor 1:2). Paul even included himself as once belonging to the unregenerate class, referring to himself as the "chief of sinners" (1 Tim 1:15), the archpersecutor of the church (Gal 1:13), and an accomplice to murder (Acts 26:10).

Paul also reminded the Cretan believers that they were once like the opposition: "foolish, disobedient, led astray, slaves to variouis passions and pleasures, passing [their] days in malice and envy, hated by men and hating one another" (Titus 3:3). In essence, Paul claimed a common background for all the people in the world. Thus, his criterion for judging people was based on an individual's choice either to accept the gospel or to refuse it.

To shame and silence the obtrusive behavior of the opposition, Paul's adaptive strategy (1:9; 2:1) encouraged believers to demonstrate honorable behavior (good deeds) that modeled their beliefs (sound doctrine). Karris (113-14) acknowledges the author's hortatory use of "good deeds" and the catchword "sound" to shame the opposition and to encourage believers. Paul depicts the opposition as being "unfit for good deeds" (1:16), encourages Titus to "model good deeds" (2:7), exhorts believers to be "zealous for good deeds" (2:14), reminds believers to "apply [themselves] to good deeds" (3:8), and urges believers "to learn to apply [themselves] to good deeds" (3:14). In addition, Paul stressed the word sound in holding to that which is reasonable, reliable, and rational for faith and to instruct others in "sound doctrine" (1:9), to rebuke those who lack "sound doctrine" (1:13), to "teach what befits sound doctrine" (2:1), to be "sound in faith, in love, and in steadfastness" (2:2), and to demonstrate "sound speech" (2:8).

The continuity of any ethnic or religious group depends on its ability to maintain a distinctive boundary. In accentuating the need for good deeds and sound doctrine in this epistle, Paul gave careful attention to maintaining a strong boundary between believers and non-believers. This separation of people into believers and non-believers implies a recognition of limitations on shared understandings, differences in criteria for judgment of value and performance, and a restriction of interaction to sectors of assumed common understanding and mutual interest" (Barth: 15). Boundaries encourage loyalty and allegiance from members and guard against pernicious attacks from opposing groups who seek to modify boundaries to include their "pet beliefs."

The loose living of Cretan society left themselves open to the accusation of being "unfit for good deeds." Indeed, their attack on the believing community, like a deleterious cancer, was destroying the faith of whole famiilies (1:11). Hence Paul responded by skillfully wielding a verbal scalpel and removing their insidious influence from the community. Even anthropologists with their extensive experience in cross-cultural research, sensitivity, and objectivity do not "have to ignore international standards of justice and morality" (Kottak: 46). Anthropologists have long recognized that culture is patterned (Keesing: 188-96) and that people suffer from poor cultural patterning (Goodman: 4, 181-82, 210-42). This was apparently the situation among Cretans, and so Paul stressed the need for "sound doctrine."

Cultural Transformation Phase: Titus 2:1-3:7

In the fifth phase of revitalization movements, a significant number of followers accept the vision and "a noticeable social revitalization occurs, signalized by the reduction of the personal deterioration symptoms of individuals, by extensive cultural changes, and by an enthusiastic embarkation on some organized program of group action" (Wallace 1956: 275). Paul's transition to this section begins with the phrase "But as for you" (2:1), contrasting the "sound doctrine" to be taught by Titus (2:1-3:7) with the deceptive teaching of the opposition in the previous section (1:10-16). This epistle holds "that good behavior flows from sound doctrine, while deviation from this doctrine can only produce moral disaster and social disorder" (Bassler: 193).

Titus 2:1-3:7 contains four sections summarizing the behavioral norms and basic beliefs advocated for the Cretan believers. Section one details the kind of behavior needed to bring civility to society and moral responsibility to the church (2:1-10); section two describes the rationale for this behavior based on the work of God through Christ (2:11-16); section three delineates the kind of behavior and attitudes needed to minister effectively to the larger society (3:1-3); and section four outlines doctrinal teachings concerning God's transforming grace and the basis of hope for believers (3:4-7).

This is not to suggest that all segments of the early church formed one unified group (Brown: 167-69); the point is rather that these early believers shared "a unified kerygma of the New Testament" (Lemcio: 115-31). Undoubtedly, contacts among leaders and church councils contributed to some consensus concerning basic beliefs (Acts 15:6-29). Ellis (247-51) notes that "Paul's use of traditions from his and other apostolic circles was characteristic of his major letters and is to be counted as a Pauline trait in the Pastorals," suggesting that "46% of the [309] words" found in Titus were from these "preformed traditions." Dibelius and Corzelmann (145) add that the credal sections (2:11-14; 3:4-7) contain concepts "derived from the usage of the Judaism of the Diaspora" as Greek and Judean texts demonstrate.

For example, the so-called "house codes" (Eph 5:21-6:9; Col 3:18-4:1) describe a reciprocity model to be implemented by believers based on the Roman sibling relationship of respect and loyalty. Paul's most extensive use of these surrogate sibling terms was in 1 Corinthians, where the term brother (adelphos) occurs eleven times, sisters (adelphai) occurs twice, and brothers/sisters (adelphoi) occurs twenty-eight times (Bartchy: 70). The general Roman social system was based upon male dominance, but inside the Roman family siblings were treated with affection. Bartchy (68) explains, "The tightest unity of loyalty and affection was experienced in the sibling group of brothers and sisters, rather than in the emotional bonds of marriage." Borrowing this sibling paradigm, Paul defined the new surrogate family under the rubric "Fatherhood of God" to "seek to outdo each other in showing honor to each other" (Bartchy: 69).

Indeed, it is significant to note that in the Titus letter Paul deviated from this general sibling reciprocity pattern in urging wives (2:5) and slaves (2:9) to be submissive. This was clearly an exception to the Roman sibling relationship seemingly made as a cultural concession to a pagan society as a means of spreading the gospel. That is, Paul urged voluntary submission on the part of women to their unbelieving husbands so "that the word of God may not be discredited" (2:5) and for slaves so "that in everything they may adorn the doctrine of GOd our Savior" (2:10). Johnson (233) notes that this exception lacked the usual "legitimating language such as `in the Lord' or `because of the Lord' or `as pleasing the Lord,' that Paul sprinkles into his directives in Colossians and Ephesians."

Padgett (50-51) suggests that while "Paul knew women to be equal in Christ to men, he soon discovered that they had to submit to their pagan husbands, if the church was to survive in order to avoid greater slander and persecution." During this period of history, female cults such as Dionysus and Isis were involved in "sexual immorality, murder, and sedition" during drunken orgies at night, resulting in Greek and Roman governmental bans on these cults (Balch: 75). To avoid any appearance of this female disturbance, degradation, and criticism from the government, Paul asked women, "for the sake of the gospel," to be willing to give up certain social rights and privileges, as he had done on some occasions, in order to win others to Christ (1 Cor 10:23-33). All of this was to be accomplished "without bondage by forming house churches of voluntarily accountable members who practice true submission, led by qualified spiritual authority" (Troxel: 40).

In the second section (2:11-15), Paul described the available resource of God's grace that enables believers to produce good deeds by suggesting four motives for choosing this lifestyle (Griffiths: 150-51):

* God sent Christ into the world to provide salvation for all people (2:11).

* Believers have hope because Christ will return a second time for them (2:13).

* Christ died to redeem sinners and motivate them to live in fellowship with GOd (2:14).

* Christ is purifying for himself a people who are zealous to produce good deeds and share in his glorious future (2:13-14).

Easton (1947: 94) contends that Titus 2:11-14 represents "a citation from a Christian credal formula or hymn." Johnson (239) observes the echo of First Testament language found in such words as ransoming, cleansing, chosen people, and zealous. These words came from ancient Israel: God "ransomed" Israel (Ps 130:8), God chose Israel to be "a holy people" (Ex 19:5; Deut 14:2), and God "will cleanse them and they shall be my people" (Ezek 37:23). This is additional evidence that much of the language and many of the themes in Titus are a mixture of Judean, Roman, and apostolic sources used to revitalize the evolving community of God through the educating power of the Spirit of God (3:5).

Paul declares that grace recruits, redeems, and regenerates people from all nations to belong to God in order to produce good deeds until the glory of Christ's return (2:11-14). Caemmerer (105) sees much of this epistle as focusing on the proclamation of the grace of God in four dimensions: in the primary plan of GOd revealed in Christ (1:1-2), in the mandate of Paul to preach the good news (1:3), in the work of Titus to select and guide the work of the Cretan Church (1:10-16; 3:9-11), and in the witness of believers in their love and good works (1:13-14; 2:8, 10; 3:1-3, 9, 14).

In section three (3:1-7), Paul's revitalization message moves from behavior and beliefs affecting the local household to the larger world under the imperial Roman authority for some three centuries. He addressed the issue of the local believers' relationship to dominating rulers as well as to detestable unbelievers who were "incapable of good works" in their natural state and capable of causing havoc in the local churches.

First, Paul suggests obedience and submission on the part of all believers to "rulers and authorities" as well as a willingness to work hard at their place of employment--to reflect favorably on their faith (3:1). Elsewhere, Paul explains that ultimately all authority is in the hands of God, who permits earthly rulers to maintain order to promote civil societies (Rom 13:1-3). Willing submission to established rule is viewed in this epistle as a positive step in overcoming the incivility of Cretan society and promoting a social climate in which the message of faith could be shared.

Second, Paul suggests that believers in this revitalization movement should act toward others with courtesy, concern, and kindness to avoid quarreling and speaking evil of them (3:2). Paul proceeds to give a humbling rationale for this behavior by reminding believers of their former lifestyle before their conversion, when they lacked the very traits he asserts as gifts of God's grace (3:2). Rather than making a wholesale condemnation of Cretan or Roman society, Paul elevates their problem of human evil to a universal level, asserting that all people live on a common plain of depravity until they experience "renewal in the Holy Spirit" (3:5), become a "new creation in Christ" (2 Cor 5:17), and receive the "power to live gentle and peaceful lives ... that comes from a God who is defined by these same qualities" (Johnson: 248).

In section four (3:4-7), Paul explains how this change is initiated in the life of a believer and the reward that comes to those who receive it by faith. As he did in section two (Titus 2:11-14), Paul mined the revitalization tradition of creeds and hymns (3:4-7) to provide the theological rationale for this prescribed behavior (3:1-2). The motive for this divine gift of grace is attributed to the "goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior" (3:4), based on the human condition that is incapable of producing righteousness (3:5), with the remedy supplied by the regenerating power of the Holy Spirit (3:5) and an inheritance of eternal life (3:7). This message is no ordinary philosophy based on human willpower, the power of positive thinking, or stoical resignation; rather, it is a dynamic, life-changing, empirical demonstration of a radical transformation by the "renewal and regeneration ... by the Holy Spirit" for all who desire it (Haykin: 303).

Griffiths (157) sees in this section (3:4-7) a seminal summary of the "central core" of the revitalization message. It begins with the incarnation ("the Savior appeared"--3:4), moves on to Calvary (stating "he saved us"--3:5), includes the new birth of the "washing of regeneration" (3:5), mentions the work of sanctification by the renewing of "the Holy Spirit" (3:5), refers to Pentecost in that the Holy Spirit was "poured out upon us richly" (3:6), includes heaven in reference to "eternal life" (3:7), considers justification "by his grace" (3:7), and speaks of future inheritance as "heirs in hope" (3:7).

Paul concludes this section (3:4-7) by reminding his readers that these teachings are "trustworthy" for life and eternity (3:8). He began this epistle with a theocentric message "entrusted" to him by "God our Savior" (1:3), climaxes it with a prognosis that includes the transforming power of the holy Spirit (3:5), and points to a new "life-style which is theocentric" (Pobee: 8). Weber (1946: 287) predicts that however a group rationalizes its way of life, "it has been profoundly determined by the ultimate values toward which this rationalization has been directed." This section is significant for all people (2:11) because it presents the ultimate solution (3:4-7) to the universal human problem of sin (3:3).

Routinization Phase: Titus 3:8-15

Wallace (1956: 275) suggests that if the revitalization organization is effective in producing the desired transformation among its members, it will assume the responsibility for the "preservation of the doctrine and the performance of the ritual (i.e., it becomes a church)." The process of revitalization is never complete until the changes are integrated into the life of the local community. Lewin (43) cautions leaders that sociocultural changes toward a "higher level of performance are ... short lived, after a `shot in the arm,' group life soon returns to the previous level." Resistance, lack of perseverance, economic pressures, and external interference can frequently cause people to slip back into their former modes of behavior (Coggins: 136). Weber (1947: 266) cautions, "Thus, the charismatic movement led by a prophet is, in the nature of the case, temporary, and if it is to survive at all must find a routine basis of organization."

It is not surprising, therefore, that Paul concludes this epistle with seven appropriate directives for Titus.

* Titus is to "insist on these things" for as long as it takes so that believers will be "careful to apply themselves to good deeds" (3:8).

* The believers are to waste no time in foolish disputes with Gnostics, Rabbis, etc., because such disputes are "unprofitable and futile" (3:9).

* He continues by warningTitus to reprimand a disruptive person twice and then instruct the community to shun the offender (3:10-11).

* Paul promises to send reinforcements to assist in the work of the Cretan churches (3:12).

* He integrates the Cretan churches within the general revitalization movement by urging them to support Zenas and Apollos (3:13).

* Paul reminds Titus that believers must "learn to apply themselves to good deeds" to be fruitful and faithful to meet urgent needs (3:14)--that is, to make good deeds a priority in life in their response to God's grace and human need.

* Paul closes the letter with a general greeting from his friends and exhorts Cretan believers to greet all believers in the faith (3:15).

Summary

The empirical and pedagogical value of any paradigm is related to its ability to predict, interpret, and explain social behavior. The application of the revitalization paradigm to the Titus text provides a mechanism for interpreting each segment in terms of its relationship to every other segment as well as enabling the interpreter to predict the type of social behavior to expect in each succeeding segment. It describes how the apostolic message was used to recruit, instruct, inspire, and mentor believers to change their values, beliefs, and behavior.

* The epistle begins with a description of the basis for Paul's religious authority (1:1-3).

* It continues with a brief reference to the communication of the gospel to this group in the past as well as authorizing Titus to continue communicating with believers on the Island of Crete (1:4-5a).

* Instructions and criteria follow, for the appointment of leaders to organize the believers (1:5b-9).

* Then come an explanation of the nature of their opposition and suggested stragegies for confronting it (1:10-16).

* The kind of beliefs and behavior appropriate to this new religious movement are then prescribed (2:1-3:7).

* The conclusion consists in general instructions for directing and monitoring the desired changes in values and beliefs until they became institutionalized in the daily routine of the believers through deeds of love and the growth of the church (3:8-15).

In essence, the Epistle to Titus is one local application of the larger apostolic message and movement. Indeed, Paul viewed his mission as being "the Apostle to the nations" (Titus 2:11; Gal 2:7-9), sent to preach a theocratic message of good news concerning the "forgiveness of sins" (Titus 1;1-3; 2:11-14; Acts 26;15-20) to all people, even if it meant crossing cultural, religious, and ethnic boundaries (Titus 2:11; Gal 3:28) with the motive of bringing "hope" (Titus 2:13; 3:7; Col 1:27). Sin was viewed as the great equalizer of the human race (Titus 3:3; Rom 3:23), redemption through Christ was proclaimed as the common cure (Titus 1:16; 2:11; 3:3; Rom. 3:23). The subsequent offer of eternal life provided a motive for change, and adoption into the family of God (Rom 8:15; Gal 4:4-5; Eph 1:5) resulted in a new relationship with one another as "brothers and sisters" in Christ (Bartchy: 75).

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Kenneth D. Tollefson, Ph.D. (University of Washington), author of cultural revitalization studies on three Native American tribes: Duwamish, Snoqualmie, and Tlingit, and two earlier articles in BTB (vol. 27 and 29), is Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA. 98119-1828. His e-mail address is [e-mail].