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Three eras of young adult home leaving in twentieth-century America (1).


This article divides the history of coming of age in the U.S. in the twentieth century into three distinct time periods: one that ran from 1880 until World War II, one that started in the 1940s and continued until the 1960s, and a third that began by 1970 and was clearly still in evidence in 1990. The story is based on data that recorded whether young people were living with one or both of their parents at the time of each of the decennial de·cen·ni·al  
adj.
1. Relating to or lasting for ten years.

2. Occurring every ten years.

n.
A tenth anniversary.
 censuses of the U.S., from 1880 through 1990. (2) We focus on the ages at which young men and women left home based on census census, periodic official count of the number of persons and their condition and of the resources of a country. In ancient times, among the Jews and Romans, such enumeration was mainly for taxation and conscription purposes.  data, and we interpret To run a program one line at a time. Each line of source language is translated into machine language and then executed.  those levels and trends in terms of the broad social conditions in which they lived. In doing so we see that during the twentieth century, the process by which young people passed from dependence to independence underwent major changes.

The news here is in the history of home-leaving ages up until the time of the second world war. Virtually all earlier studies assert that the age of home-leaving was declining from as early as it could be measured until 1970. Our results say otherwise. From 1880 until 1940 for males and 1950 for females, the age at leaving home did not decline, it rose (see Figure 1). The decline came later. Led by men in 1940, the generation of the Second World War experienced a sharp decline in the age at which they left home, one that continued for everyone until 1960 and for white men and women until 1970. Beginning with 1970, the age of home-leaving rose again, reaching relatively high levels by 1990. These patterns hold generally for white and black Americans, and for males and females, but we will show later that there are significant differences among these four groups. (3) In the 1940s turnaround Turnaround

A situation where a company that has had poor performance for an extended period of time experiences a positive reversal.

Notes:
A speculator may profit from a turnaround if he or she accurately anticipates the improvement of a poorly performing company.
, for example, all four groups had varying experiences. Among other differences, trends for blacks are less well defined t han for whites, so that the ups and downs ups and downs  
pl.n.
Alternating periods of good and bad fortune or spirits.


ups and downs
Noun, pl

alternating periods of good and bad luck or high and low spirits
 are less pronounced.

This research makes use of census data that document relationships within each household. We focus on young people aged 15 to 29, because those are the ages at which most Americans made the transition from living with their parents to living away from their parents. Our approach is shaped by the fact that the census is a static document that records living arrangements on a given date. These data do not capture the transition from living with at least one parent to living away from both parents. Nor do they indicate whether an adult has left home, then returned in later years. Nevertheless, the census allows us to examine the characteristics of persons who are living with a parent or not living with a parent, and then ask whether the characteristics of those who are living at home or away have changed over time, or whether they differ between groups.

The most important of the characteristic differences between young people at home and those living on their own is their age. We say that young people left home "later" in 1940 than in 1920 because the average ages of those still at home in 1940 were greater than those of 1920, after taking into account the overall age distribution of the population. Other important characteristics, in addition to race and sex, are the region in which people lived, whether they were foreign-born for·eign-born
adj.
Foreign by birth; not native to the country in which one resides.

Adj. 1. foreign-born - of persons born in another area or country than that lived in; "our large nonnative population"
nonnative
 or native-born na·tive-born
adj.
Belonging to a place by birth.

Adj. 1. native-born - belonging to a place by birth; "a native-born Scot"; "a native Scot"
, whether they were single or married, whether they lived on a farm or not, and whether they had migrated out of their region of birth. These are not the only personal attributes that shaped the home-leaving experience, but the reliable census data that exist about these characteristics allow us to tell an important story about the history of home-leaving in the U.S.

The process of home leaving for young adults is closely related to becoming an independent adult, and the motivations that have caused young people through the twentieth century to leave the parental home have varied. Leaving home may occur as a result of parental mortality, increased personal or financial opportunities outside the home, or social expectations or rules requiring that the young person live away from parents. While the wording is over-simplified, we can describe these two groups of processes as either involuntary involuntary adj. or adv. without intent, will, or choice. Participation in a crime is involuntary if forced by immediate threat to life or health of oneself or one's loved ones, and will result in dismissal or acquittal.


INVOLUNTARY.
 or voluntary separation of children from their parents' home. Involuntary home-leaving occurs when both parents die or when poverty leads to the disintegration disintegration /dis·in·te·gra·tion/ (-in?ti-gra´shun)
1. the process of breaking up or decomposing.

2.
 of the family household. In contrast, children may leave their parents' home voluntarily when they choose to attend school or work away from home, join the military, or when they marry or otherwise establish an independent household separate from that of their parents. Over the century, the prevalence prevalence /prev·a·lence/ (prev´ah-lins) the number of cases of a specific disease present in a given population at a certain time.

prev·a·lence
n.
 of what we describe as inv oluntary home-leaving has decreased, largely due to a decline in the likelihood of becoming an orphan orphan: see adoption; foundling hospital; guardian and ward.


See widow & orphan.
Orphan
See also Abandonment.

Adverse, Anthony

finally, at middle age, discovers origins. [Am. Lit.
 between the ages of 15 to 29. The more complex and socially driven reasons for leaving home, however, are important to the leaving home process throughout the twentieth century.

The history of home-leaving in the U.S. since 1880 largely reflects changes in social conventions, family relationships, and individual characteristics. During the Long First Half of the Twentieth Century, one of the most important factors in the rising age of home-leaving was declining adult mortality, which led to declining rates of orphanhood. High rates of immigration immigration, entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important.  into the U.S. up until the 1920s also influenced the age at which young people left home, because young adults who immigrated by themselves during the peak years were necessarily away from the home of their parents. Finally, social change that led to decreased child labor child labor, use of the young as workers in factories, farms, and mines. Child labor was first recognized as a social problem with the introduction of the factory system in late 18th-century Great Britain.  and increased schooling in the first decades of the century led to later home leaving.

Those trends and experiences changed in the period we call War and Post-War, when the median age of leaving home decreased for all groups that we study here. The driving force behind the male experience of leaving home, we hypothesize hy·poth·e·size  
v. hy·poth·e·sized, hy·poth·e·siz·ing, hy·poth·e·siz·es

v.tr.
To assert as a hypothesis.

v.intr.
To form a hypothesis.
, was the military draft. The continued downward trend in the age at leaving home through the 1960 census is probably a result of increased educational opportunities at the college level, particularly as a result of the 0.1. Bill, and of the post-war marriage boom.

Finally, beginning during the 1960s, in the era we call the Baby Boomers See generation X.  and After, the age at leaving home increased. College enrollment continued to be important, in part due to an increasing number of institutions offering more flexible educational plans. Marriage ages rose during this era, and marriage became a less important influence on the home-leaving behavior of women. Young people during this period were both more likely to move away from their parents simply to form a new and independent household, and more likely to return home and live with parents after they had initially left. The result of these social changes was an upward trend in the age of leaving home, one that is more dramatic for females than for males, and one that was dramatic between 1980 and 1990.

Background

The story we tell about the ages of home leaving in the twentieth century U.S. expands upon and retells a story told by other historians This article is currently semi-protected to prevent sock puppets of currently blocked or banned users from editing it. . Most of these earlier studies use either individual longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal
adj.
Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts.
 data, such as surveys and matched censuses, or local or national census data. Longitudinal data allow the researcher to trace individuals' transitions, the sequencing of those transitions, and the changes in those individuals' lives over time. (4) Census statistics provide the researcher with information about one time point only. Census data are more limited in their usefulness, because they do not allow the researcher to see the experiences of individuals experiencing the transition from youth to adulthood, but rather only their conditions either before or after the transition. (5)

The most influential work on this subject has been done by Goldscheider and her colleagues. At the national level, they show that for most of the twentieth century, each successive cohort cohort /co·hort/ (ko´hort)
1. in epidemiology, a group of individuals sharing a common characteristic and observed over time in the group.

2.
 of young people left home at an average age below that of the cohort immediately preceding them. (6) While there has been relatively little research dealing with the period prior to the 1930s, what there has been suggests that the downward trend began even earlier. (7) There is consensus, however, that around 1980 the decline in the age at home-leaving began to reverse. One possible explanation for this change is the increase in the age at marriage since the mid- mid-
pref.
Middle: midbrain. 
1960s. (8) A second trend is the progression progression, in mathematics, sequence of quantities, called terms, in which the relationship between consecutive terms is the same. An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which each term is derived from the preceding one by adding a given number, d,  over time toward a narrower range of ages at which young people left home, reflecting a more homogenized ho·mog·e·nize  
v. ho·mog·e·nized, ho·mog·e·niz·ing, ho·mog·e·niz·es

v.tr.
1. To make homogeneous.

2.
a. To reduce to particles and disperse throughout a fluid.

b.
 coming-of-age experience.

While there has not been much explicit theorizing--from either a social or economic perspective--about home-leaving, most authors tend to identify four factors that play an important role in determining home leaving, at both the group and individual levels. The first of these factors is marriage timing. Until at least the 1960s, most young women and many young men first left their parents' home at the time they married. Differences in marriage ages between men and women led to the common observation that young women left home at younger ages than did young men. (9) Moreover, as others have shown and as we will show in this article, changes in marriage age through time are strongly aligned with changes in the ages of home leaving (Figure 2). Still, marriage and gender do not always work perfectly together. In his study of late nineteenth century Ireland Ireland, Irish Eire (âr`ə) [to it are related the poetic Erin and perhaps the Latin Hibernia], island, 32,598 sq mi (84,429 sq km), second largest of the British Isles. , Guinnane argues that gender differences often affect the age at which a young person leaves home less than other systematic differences. Men did not always l eave home later, and economic pressures were in many cases more important than gender in predicting the age at leaving home. (10)

Just as marriage and gender do not always work in perfect harmony harmony, in music, simultaneous sounding of two or more tones and, especially, the study of chords and their relations. Harmony was the last in the development of what may be considered the basic elements of modern music—harmony, melody, rhythm, and tone , nor do trends in marriage and race. The data on marriage in Figure 2 clearly show that the boom in marriages that took place from the later 1940s until the 1970s was a characteristic of the white population much more than of the black population. As recently as 1950, black men and women aged 20 to 24 were more likely to be married than their white counterparts. By 1960 that pattern was reversed, a reversal reversal n. the decision of a court of appeal ruling that the judgment of a lower court was incorrect and is reversed. The result is that the lower court which tried the case is instructed to dismiss the original action, retry the case, or is ordered to change its  that has continued despite the decline in percent married that took place after 1970.

By the end of the twentieth century, many young people chose to leave home for pre-marital residential independence. If they can afford to, young adults increasingly prefer to live alone or in non-familial arrangements. (11) Acceptance of the trend, especially for young women, is nonetheless highly variable across social groups. The relatively new phenomenon is generally accepted among highly educated Protestants and Jews Jews [from Judah], traditionally, descendants of Judah, the fourth son of Jacob, whose tribe, with that of his half brother Benjamin, made up the kingdom of Judah; historically, members of the worldwide community of adherents to Judaism. , but is more controversial in other communities. (12)

As Guinnane's research suggests, structures of economic opportunity constitute the second major factor determining home leaving ages. Young people stay at home if the household can offer financial opportunities to those who remain. Alternatively, they leave home if the household cannot offer them opportunities, or if better opportunities exist elsewhere. According to according to
prep.
1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.

2. In keeping with: according to instructions.

3.
 Florey Flo·rey , Howard Walter 1898-1968.

Australian-born British pathologist. He shared a 1945 Nobel Prize for isolating and purifying penicillin.
 and Guest, the strongest predictor that a late-nineteenth century American American, river, 30 mi (48 km) long, rising in N central Calif. in the Sierra Nevada and flowing SW into the Sacramento River at Sacramento. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill (see Sutter, John Augustus) along the river in 1848 led to the California gold rush of  farm boy would remain home was the likelihood that he would inherit To receive property according to the state laws of intestate succession from a decedent who has failed to execute a valid will, or, where the term is applied in a more general sense, to receive the property of a decedent by will.


inherit v.
 the farm. (13)

Economic opportunity in the community also influenced when a child left home. A young adult who could not find a way to contribute to the family economy while remaining at home might leave to look for work. Florey and Guest suggest that local economic development 'pulled' boys from the farm toward more lucrative work. (14) Although children had been a significant part of the U.S. labor force at the turn of the century, their involvement decreased by the 1940s and i 1950s (Figure 3). Approximately ap·prox·i·mate  
adj.
1. Almost exact or correct: the approximate time of the accident.

2.
 two-thirds to one half as many children aged 15 to 19 were in the labor force in 1940 as had been in 1900. The change was due in part to technological advances in factories and legal reforms requiring children to be in school. New cultural perspectives also contributed to the change. One result was that while middle class parents viewed urban or non-family related work as damaging to young people, they believed that labor involvement in a family farm or small business was morally and physically wholesome whole·some  
adj. whole·som·er, whole·som·est
1. Conducive to sound health or well-being; salutary: simple, wholesome food; a wholesome climate.

2.
. (15)

After the 1950s, the involvement of children in the labor force changed again. Previously, American children had worked as preparation for adult occupations. By the 1960s, however, young workers were increasingly likely to be employed in service jobs, such as pumping gas Pumping GAS was a two-hour programming block on the Nickelodeon spin-off network, Nick GAS. "Pumping GAS" was commercial-free, with only a thirty-second "pit stop" every now and then.  or serving food, which financed personal consumption but were unrelated to later work. As the U.S. service economy expanded, young adults were more likely to work, but their jobs were less likely to lead to economic self-sufficiency self-suf·fi·cient
adj.
1. Able to provide for oneself without the help of others; independent.

2. Having undue confidence; smug.



self
. (6)

The third factor in home leaving is the possibility of alternatives to marriage and employment. Two such alternatives, education and military service, have played important and changing roles in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area.  in the twentieth century. Greater access to education has been a national trend in the twentieth century. As more children received primary and secondary educations, entry into the labor force occurred at a later age. The transition to mass college education after the 1940s led to a decreased age at leaving home as financially dependent students lived away from their parents while at school. The increase in college enrollment was due to several factors. First, the number of high school graduates increased due to improved education in the first half of the century. Second, the G.I. Bill The G.I. Bill (officially titled the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944) provided for college or vocational education for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as GIs or G.I.s) as well as one year of unemployment compensation.  allowed World War II and Korean War veterans ≈The last U.S. Korean War veteran on active duty was Lt.Col Don Byers, US Army, who retired in 1992
  • Neil Armstrong, astronaut, US Navy
  • F. Lee Bailey, lawyer, US Marine Corps
  • James A.
 an affordable undergraduate education undergraduate education Medtalk In the US, a 4+ yr college or university education leading to a baccalaureate degree, the minimum education level required for medical school admission; undergraduate medical education refers to the 4 yrs of medical school. Cf CME. . Finally, the increasing number of public junior colleges and two-year institutions in the 1970s allowed more students to attend colle ge, despite financial or scholastic constraints CONSTRAINTS - A language for solving constraints using value inference.

["CONSTRAINTS: A Language for Expressing Almost-Hierarchical Descriptions", G.J. Sussman et al, Artif Intell 14(1):1-39 (Aug 1980)].
. (17)

After a period of stability until 1900 and from 1910 to 1920 for whites (but not for blacks), the proportion of both males and females aged 15-19 attending school rose steadily, rising by half by 1940-1950, and doubling by 1970 (Figure 4). The lack of change from 1910 to 1920 may be more exaggerated by the data than is appropriate, because the census enumerators instructions for 1910 encouraged them to give an occupation to persons who were employed in family businesses, including farms. (18) The likelihood of people between 15 and 19 attending high school increased dramatically until 1970, with the likelihood that they would live at home.

Participation in voluntary or mandatory military service also determines the age at which a young person leaves home. According to Goldscheider and Goldscheider, the cohort of men who turned 18 during World War II left home two years earlier than the cohort who had turned eighteen during the depression. More than half of the men in the World War II cohort first left home as a direct result of a desire to enter military service. (19) Modell reports Modell Report is a political news-website run by Matt Modell. It focuses mainly on Washington-DC news. Matt Modell is currently a law student at the University of North Carolina. External links
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 that military service was important for the generation that fought in World War II and the Korean War Korean War, conflict between Communist and non-Communist forces in Korea from June 25, 1950, to July 27, 1953. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korean) and U.S. (South Korean) zones of occupation. , but after that, participation became less common. (20) Goldscheider and Goldscheider, however, argue that even after World War II, participation in military service was an important determinant determinant, a polynomial expression that is inherent in the entries of a square matrix. The size n of the square matrix, as determined from the number of entries in any row or column, is called the order of the determinant.  of the age at which men left home. (21) Our results (Figure 5) confirm that finding by showing that the impact of military service for males persisted at least until the cohort aged 15-29 in 1970.

The fourth major factor influencing patterns of home leaving is migration, which includes internal migration within the U.S. as well as international immigration. The widespread twentieth century migration from rural settings to cities and suburbs led to homogenization homogenization (həmŏj'ənəzā`shən), process in which a mixture is made uniform throughout. Generally this procedure involves reducing the size of the particles of one component of the mixture and dispersing them evenly  in the age at leaving home. The migration from rural areas to urban areas that occurred in the 1920s was led by young people leaving family farms to find work. (22) Stevens Stevens, family of U.S. inventors.

John Stevens, 1749–1838, b. New York City, was graduated from King's College (now Columbia Univ.) in 1768.
 describes this as a process in which "the country moved from an agricultural society where young men from farm families were the last to leave home, to an urban society in which all occupational classes experience this transition at the same time." (23)

International migration has also been instrumental in shaping American society (Figure 6). Many of the young people who arrived in the U.S. in the last century did so without their parents. Immigrants who came to the U.S. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century brought their own cultural practices and values. As some ethnic differences declined over the twentieth century, however, the age at which children left home became more homogenized for all Americans. (24)0

A final influence on the age at which young people leave home is whether their parents are still living. We define "living at home" as being in the same household as at least one parent. Orphaned or·phan  
n.
1.
a. A child whose parents are dead.

b. A child who has been deprived of parental care and has not been adopted.

2. A young animal without a mother.

3.
 young people appear in our results to have left home, although they did not make the choice to do so. The trend in orphanhood is difficult for us to describe because the census sample data that would produce precise results do not specify whether a person is orphaned or not. Instead of making direct computation Computation is a general term for any type of information processing that can be represented mathematically. This includes phenomena ranging from simple calculations to human thinking.  of orphanhood rates from the census sample data, we have instead used standard U.S. life tables to estimate the likelihood of a both parents of an individual dying by a specified spec·i·fy  
tr.v. spec·i·fied, spec·i·fy·ing, spec·i·fies
1. To state explicitly or in detail: specified the amount needed.

2. To include in a specification.

3.
 age, given average ages of childbearing child·bear·ing
n.
Pregnancy and parturition.



childbearing adj.
 for those parents. (25) The estimates in Figure 7 show, for example, that the estimated probability of orphanhood for a twenty-year old child in 1900 was 0.0.37, meaning that slightly fewer than four percent of twenty-year olds were orphans. These probabilities declined to a negligible This article or section is written like a personal reflection or and may require .
Please [ improve this article] by rewriting this article or section in an .
 level by the middle of the twentieth century.

The estimated probability of orphanhood in the United States varies dramatically by age (as would be expected), and declines steadily from 1880 to 1990. In the most extreme case, a person aged 30 had a 14.7% chance of being orphaned in 1880, which fell to twelve percent in 1900, to less than ten percent in 1920, and to less than eight percent in 1920. The same declines are evident for orphanhood at ages 15, 20, and 25, although they start at lower levels. Even in 1880, a 15-year hold had only a one-in-40 chance of being orphaned, which declined by 1940 to less than one percent.

The conclusion that we draw from our estimates of orphanhood is that the steady decline of adult mortality in the U.S. from 1880 to 1990 had reduced the role of orphanhood in determining the ages at which young people have left home, with a decline by half taking place between 1880 and 1940. The rising overall age of home-leaving from 1880 to 1940 is consistent with this evdence. What also needs to be said is that at the relatively young ages at which most people left their parents' homes in the late nineteenth century, the role of orphanhood was a modest factor.

Young adults in the U.S. experienced changing living conditions living conditions nplcondiciones fpl de vida

living conditions nplconditions fpl de vie

living conditions living
 between 1880 and 1990, a result of evolving patterns of health, economic life, and the community's expectation of them and their families. These changed conditions influenced the length of time that they lived with their parents. Up until the outbreak outbreak

see epidemic.
 of the Second Would War in 1941, many of the changes that took place, especially in orphanhood, school attendance, and employment, should have led to later home leaving. The war introduced one significant change, a dramatic increase in military service for men, and indirectly led to two others-more marriage and more higher education-that reversed the earlier trend, and led to earlier home leaving. The war and post-war trends ran their course by the 1970s, and were followed by stability in schooling and work, and a decline in the propensity for young people to marry.

A Brief Introduction to Data and Methods

Before we present our analysis of home-leaving ages, we begin with a brief description of our sources and methods. Those wishing more information should consult the appendixes. The analysis reported here makes use of household-level and individual-level data drawn from the U.S. Census of population from 1880 through 1990, with the exception of 1890 and 1930 (see note 2). These data about individuals and households have been digitized from a sample of records extracted from the original manuscripts of the census, and maintained as part of the IPUMS IPUMS Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (University of Minnesota)  data collection by the University of Minnesota (body, education) University of Minnesota - The home of Gopher.

http://umn.edu/.

Address: Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
. (26) In every census used here, the enumeration 1. (mathematics) enumeration - A bijection with the natural numbers; a counted set.

Compare well-ordered.
2. (programming) enumeration - enumerated type.
 recorded relationships within each household, and it is usually possible from those relationships to identify the parents of each child, if those parents lived within the household. The censuses changed the questions they asked from time to time, but consistently allow identification of race, sex, place of current residence, birthplace birth·place  
n.
The place where someone is born or where something originates.


birthplace
Noun

the place where someone was born or where something originated

Noun 1.
 (both with varying levels of detail) , marital status marital status,
n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state.
, and whether the individual lived on a farm or not. (27) We use these important characteristics of individuals to categorize cat·e·go·rize  
tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es
To put into a category or categories; classify.



cat
 the subjects of our analysis. The characteristics that we do not use are also significant. It is not possible to categorize the subjects of our analysis by their parents' socioeconomic status socioeconomic status,
n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion.
, for example, because we usually cannot know the parental SES of those who have already left home. This is a weakness in our analysis, but it does not diminish the long-term Long-term

Three or more years. In the context of accounting, more than 1 year.


long-term

1. Of or relating to a gain or loss in the value of a security that has been held over a specific length of time. Compare short-term.
 trends and differences between major population sub-groups that we have discovered.

We use the census data in three complementary ways.

The simplest thing we do is tabulate (1) To arrange data into a columnar format.

(2) To sum and print totals.
 the distribution of persons with some characteristic according to whether they still lived with one parent or not. This information is available directly from the census. In Figure 3, for example, we report the percentage of women aged 15-29 by marital status who live away from their parents. This information, while simple, is comparable across censuses and sub-groups, and is immediately meaningful. If more married women in the south than in the north lived away from home in a given time period, the results are meaningful.

The second way we use the data is to estimate the ages at which young people left home by quartile Quartile

A statistical term describing a division of observations into four defined intervals based upon the values of the data and how they compare to the entire set of observations.

Notes:
Each quartile contains 25% of the total observations.
, in order to produce estimates of the age at which one fourth (the first quartile), one half (the median), and three-fourths Noun 1. three-fourths - three of four equal parts; "three-fourths of a pound"
three-quarters

common fraction, simple fraction - the quotient of two integers
 (the third quartile) of all young men and women had left home. This information is not available directly from the census, and therefore requires more complex methods, because census data do-not include information about actual transitions living at home to living away, but are limited to cross-sectional cross section also cross-sec·tion
n.
1.
a. A section formed by a plane cutting through an object, usually at right angles to an axis.

b. A piece so cut or a graphic representation of such a piece.

2.
 information about whether individual persons do or do not live with their parents at a single point in time. As a demographic transition Demographic transition occurs in societies that transition from high birth rates and high death rates to low birth rates and low death rates as part of the economic development of a country from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economy. , leaving home is generally analogous analogous /anal·o·gous/ (ah-nal´ah-gus) resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development.

a·nal·o·gous
adj.
 to marriage, and we might have borrowed from two methods used by demographers for the study of marriage. (28) Because of the limitations of demographic approaches to estimating home-leaving ages, the results reported here draw on statistical rather than demographic methods. The statistical approach is described in gre ater detail in Appendix appendix, small, worm-shaped blind tube, about 3 in. (7.6 cm) long and 1-4 in. to 1 in. (.64–2.54 cm) thick, projecting from the cecum (part of the large intestine) on the right side of the lower abdominal cavity.  A, and involves fitting the recorded proportions having left home to a logit The logit function is an important part of logistic regression: for more information, please see that article.

In mathematics, especially as applied in statistics, the logit
 model for each race-sex sub-population, with other covariates (region, farm/non-farm, immigration status, and so on). We can estimate medians and quartiles from the predicted values of those fitted models. These estimated medians and quartiles allow us in Table B. 1, for example, to give decennial estimates of the median age at which white women left home, despite the fact that the census does not record that information itself.

The third way we use the data is an extension of the statistical approach just described, which allows us to gauge gauge

In manufacturing and engineering, a device used to determine whether a dimension is larger or smaller than a reference standard. A snap gauge, for example, is formed like the letter C, with outer “go” and inner “not go” jaws, and is used to
 the relative importance of the factors that influenced home leaving ages. The logit regressions of the home leaving process produce coefficients that can be transformed into odds ratios, which tell us just how much various factors influenced home leaving. While these regressions cannot always be compared across time periods (unlike the estimated medians and quartiles, and the simple distributions of people by home-leaving status), they allow us to take into account possible interactions, for example if farm-resident black males in the south were different from farm-resident white males in the south. They also allow us to gauge the overall strength of all relationships by looking at measures of goodness-of-fit for the overall model, such as r-squared R-Squared

A statistical measure that represents the percentage of a fund's or security's movements that are explained by movements in a benchmark index. For fixed-income securities the benchmark is the T-bill, and for equities the benchmark is the S&P 500.
. We generally use these statistical results to confirm and illuminate il·lu·mi·nate  
v. il·lu·mi·nat·ed, il·lu·mi·nat·ing, il·lu·mi·nates

v.tr.
1. To provide or brighten with light.

2. To decorate or hang with lights.

3.
 the more easily interpreted Translated from source code into machine code one line at a time. See interpreted language and interpreter.

interpreted - interpreter
 and compared results produced by the first two met hods we have described.

Results

The key starting points Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting point
terminus a quo

commencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the
 for our research are reported in Figure 1. In this section of our article we display trends in proportions away from home or the median home-leaving age graphically, because of the ease with which they can be interpreted. The tables on which these figures are based are presented in Appendix B. Figure 1 presents the median time spent living with parents for males and females, by race, for the entire U.S. The most important initial finding that we demonstrate here is the difference in the chronological chron·o·log·i·cal   also chron·o·log·ic
adj.
1. Arranged in order of time of occurrence.

2. Relating to or in accordance with chronology.
 pattern of our results and the patterns reported in the previous literature.

Our results for the entire United States population, for both males and females, suggest that the age at which young people ceased to live with their parents rose in the early twentieth century, before reaching a peak in 1940 for men, and in 1950 for women. Following those peak years, the Years, The

the seven decades of Eleanor Pargiter’s life. [Br. Lit.: Benét, 1109]

See : Time
 age declined until 1970 before rising slightly from 1970 to 1990. These findings are in contrast to the consensus view of home leaving in the literature. Several authors assert that the age at leaving home has been declining since the early twentieth century. Our results show more complex changes in the leaving home age until 1970, when the two sets of results become similar.

Although we report only the median age at leaving home in Figure 1, we also consider the first and third quartiles--that is, the ages at which a quarter of the population had left home, and the age at which three-quarters Noun 1. three-quarters - three of four equal parts; "three-fourths of a pound"
three-fourths

common fraction, simple fraction - the quotient of two integers

three-quarters npl
 of the population had left home. The interquartile range In descriptive statistics, the interquartile range (IQR), also called the midspread, middle fifty and middle of the #s, is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the difference between the third and first quartiles. , which spans the first to the third quartile, indicates the uniformity of the leaving-home experience among all young people. A large interquartile range suggests a variety of choices or experiences that affect the age at which a person leaves home, while a smaller value indicates a narrower range of choices.

The most striking feature of Figure 8 is the extent to which patterns in the interquartile range over time are associated with sex. For both white and black men, the interquartile range remained stable from 1880 until 1940. In 1950 and 1960, the range decreased sharply, indicating that leaving-home behavior became more uniform. We hypothesize that this is a result of increased participation in military service during this period. From 1970 to 1990, the interquartile range for men increased again, as military service became less common and social norms about leaving home may have become more diverse. For both white and black women, the interquartile range was more variable. Diversity in leaving home generally increased from 1920 to 1950, perhaps as a result of new opportunities in education for some women. From 1960 to 1990, the interquartile range for women followed a similar pattern to that of men, but with less variation. Because fewer women than men served in the military in the post- post- word element [L.], after; behind.

post-
pref.
1. After; later: postpartum.

2. Behind; posterior to: postaxial.
1940 era, some of tha t decrease may have to do with a more prescribed pre·scribe  
v. pre·scribed, pre·scrib·ing, pre·scribes

v.tr.
1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate.

2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment).
 path in higher education higher education

Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art.
. The sharp increase that both men's and women's interquartile ranges showed from 1980 to 1990 may reflect a new social paradigm Pronounced "pah-ruh-dime." A model, example or pattern. See paradigm shift.  in which young people leave home for the sole purpose of establishing a new household. For both men and women, in almost all years, whites had a slightly higher interquartile range than blacks, which may result from more cultural or economic choices in home-leaving.

For both sexes, although the phenomenon is more pronounced for women, we find the most important predictor of home-leaving is marital status. Figure 9 shows the extent to which married women were likely to live away from their parents. With the exception of 1950, no fewer than 85 percent of both white and black married women lived away from their parents. In 1950, the percent of married women living away from their parents decreased, especially for blacks, in response to post-World War II housing shortages. The behavior of white and black married women was almost identical from 1880 to 1920. After 1920, however, black women were consistently more likely to live with their parents after marriage.

In Figure 10, we show the percent of married people who lived with at least one parent. From 1880 to 1990, there was little difference between married men and women. Race became more important after 1920, as married blacks were more likely than married whites to live with a parent. Both races experienced a sharp increase in 1950, because housing was scarce in 1940 and 1950 relative to 1960 and later. (29) In 1940 more than twenty percent of the population lived more than one person per room, a percentage that fell to about sixteen percent in 1950, but only 8.5 percent in 1960. Housing shortages in 1940 and 1950 led to a relatively large proportion of married young people living with a parent, a pattern that was sharply reduced by 1960, and had only partly returned in 1980 and 1990. (30) The increase that all groups experienced in living with a parent from 1980 to 1990 may reflect the recent tendency for adults to return home, either for financial reasons or to care for aging parents.

The age at which young men and women left home varied considerably across the regions of the United States. For white men and women, a consistent pattern emerges (Figure 11). Young men left home earliest in the West and latest in the Northeast “Northeastern” redirects here. For the Boston college, see Northeastern University, Boston.

Northeast or north east is the ordinal direction halfway between north and east. It is the opposite of southwest. See boxing the compass.
. Young people in all four regions experienced the same relative changes in home-leaving overtime Overtime is the amount of time someone works beyond normal working hours. Normal hours may be determined in several ways:
  • by custom (what is considered healthy or reasonable by society),
  • by practices of a given trade or profession,
  • by legislation,
. One exception is the low age at leaving home for Western young men in 1880, which is a result of westward migration and employment possibilities for the very young. Overall, these results are very similar to the national results for whites (Figure 1), because of the large proportion in all time periods of young people who were white.

The median ages at leaving home by region for black males and females reveal very different results than the figures for whites. The relative ages at which young people left home in each region are more complex: in most years, they left home earliest in the West and latest in the South, but there are many exceptions. By 1980 and 1990, young people living in the Northeast and Midwest Midwest or Middle West, region of the United States centered on the western Great Lakes and the upper-middle Mississippi valley. It is a somewhat imprecise term that has been applied to the northern section of the land between the Appalachians  left home later than any other group. For every region, the age which black men (and to a lesser extent women) left home varied considerably over time, suggesting that these groups were more sensitive to social and economic changes than were whites.

Farm residence is another important factor that determined the timing of home leaving for young people in the U.S. For all four groups (black and white, male and female), farm residents left home later than non-farm residents until at least 1940 (Figures 12). This could be a function of different social conditions for those who lived on the farm, so that they were slower to leave their parents' homes. Alternatively, it could be an artifact A distortion in an image or sound caused by a limitation or malfunction in the hardware or software. Artifacts may or may not be easily detectable. Under intense inspection, one might find artifacts all the time, but a few pixels out of balance or a few milliseconds of abnormal sound  of social change, so that the prevailing pattern of home leaving was one where young people moved from farm to non-farm residence when they left home. Beginning in 1950, the differentials changed. For males, since 1950 those not living on farms had higher median ages at leaving home, something that was especially so for black men. This may represent the final surge See power surge.

SURGE - Sorter, Updater, Report Generator, Etc. IBM 704, 1959. Sammet 1969, p.8.
 of off-farm migration. For females, the pattern appears rather different. Farm females continued to leave home later than non-farm females, and the difference becomes more pronounced beginning in 1950.

The final set of issues we report have to do with migration. It stands to reason that young people who have migrated away from their place of birth were likely to have home-leaving ages younger than those who still lived in their place of birth. We examine this question from two points of view. In Figure 13 we report the differences between native-born and foreign born young white people in terms of home leaving ages (there are relatively few foreign born blacks, which makes their results less interesting). This graph graph, figure that shows relationships between quantities. The graph of a function y=f (x) is the set of points with coordinates [x, f (x)] in the xy-plane, when x and y are numbers.  demonstrates that there was a dramatic difference between the U.S.-born and the foreign born in the ways we expected, and that the differences diminished di·min·ish  
v. di·min·ished, di·min·ish·ing, di·min·ish·es

v.tr.
1.
a. To make smaller or less or to cause to appear so.

b.
 over time, so that there is little difference in home-leaving ages for females by 1970, and not much more difference for males in recent years. In Figure 14 we describe the differences in the median age at leaving home between native-born young people who are still living in their region of birth, and those who are currently living in a differ ent region. These results show that those living in the region of their birth consistently stay with their parents longer than do those who leave, and that the differences for males is larger than for females. It is also interesting to note that the differences are larger for blacks than for whites beginning in 1950.

In the analysis thus far, we have emphasized em·pha·size  
tr.v. em·pha·sized, em·pha·siz·ing, em·pha·siz·es
To give emphasis to; stress.



[From emphasis.]

Adj. 1.
 what we can learn by looking at the trends in median home-leaving ages and proportions away from home for specific groups within the population. We have also combined these analyses and estimated logistic regression In statistics, logistic regression is a regression model for binomially distributed response/dependent variables. It is useful for modeling the probability of an event occurring as a function of other factors.  models for each year. We estimate the regressions in order to see if there are combinations of independent variables that when used simultaneously change our overall interpretation or give us a different way of seeing the role played by one independent variable or one set of social conditions. We are especially interested in using this analysis--which we explain and report fully in Appendix C--to give us a sense of the relative importance of the independent variables in explaining home leaving, which is not clear from the medians and proportions we have discussed thus far.

For men and women of both races, a few variables clearly have the most impact in influencing whether a person lives at home or away. In these results, age, marital status, and foreign nativity Nativity
See also Christmas.

Neglectfulness (See CARELESSNESS.)

Nervousness (See INSECURITY.)

Bethlehem

birthplace of Jesus. [N.T.
 explain most of the variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial.

In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality
 in living away from home. The importance of age is predictable, because as young people aged they were more likely to be away from their parents.

Despite the logical importance of age, marital status is in fact the strongest predictor of leaving home for all groups, which is a predictable consequence of the high association in U.S. society for married people to establish their own households. The effects are greater for whites than for blacks, and for women than for men. For women, the importance of marriage in determining the likelihood of leaving home declines steadily from the late nineteenth century to the present, with important declines between 1900 and 1910, and after 1960 (for white females) and 1970 (for black females), with a very sharp decline after 1970. The overall decline in the importance of marriage for home-leaving for females is very substantial. We suspect that the decline in importance in marriage as a predictor of home-leaving has two causes. The first is the rising age at marriage. As fewer people were married at each age, their importance in the overall pool of home-leavers diminished. The second is the genuine trend for married people to be living with their parents shown in Figures 3 and 4. Married black women are less likely to live away from their parents than white women, in every time period.

Nativity is the second major predictor of leaving home. The variable is much more likely to be significant among whites than blacks, because only a few blacks were recorded as foreign born until recent years. What is most interesting about the foreign-born and home-leaving is the change in the direction of the relationship that takes place beginning after 1950. The general pattern up through 1950 is that the foreign-born were much more likely to be living away from their parents than the native-born, something we would expect based on a migration pattern in which a large proportion of young people came to the United States separately from their parents. Beginning in 1960 for white males and 1970 for white females (and in 1930 for black males and females), the effect is reversed: the foreign born are less likely to live away from their parents, perhaps a reflection of more family-oriented migration streams that have emerged since the second world war. (31) The variable that identifies people living away from the region of their birth describes a strong and predictable relationship between migration and home-leaving. Consistently over the century, young people who have moved away from their region of birth are twice as likely as those who have not to live away from their parents.

Conclusion

We began this article with the assertion (programming) assertion - 1. An expression which, if false, indicates an error. Assertions are used for debugging by catching can't happen errors.

2. In logic programming, a new fact or rule added to the database by the program at run time.
 that three time periods define the long-term trend in home leaving ages in the United States since 1880. The evidence of those trends is clear from our first pages, where Figure 1 demonstrates those trends. What we have done in the pages that follow is to show the underlying elements that contributed to the creation of our periodization Periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks. The result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful handle on periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. , as well as to reveal key differences between young Americans by race and sex, region and residence.

In the Long First Half of the Twentieth Century, from 1880 until 1940 for men, and 1950 for women, ages at leaving home rose in the United States. This is the most dramatic finding of our research, because it contradicts assertions by other historians that the age of home leaving was falling during much of this time period, part of a long trend that they assert did not end until the 1960s or later. We show otherwise. The explanation is clear in the supporting data we present. While orphanhood never separated a large proportion of young Americans from their parents, declining mortality gave it less and less of an impact. Much more important than mortality were increases in school attendance and declines in the employment of teenagers. Children attending secondary school but not employed were much more likely to live at home with their parents. Even a lack of new housing in the 1930s contributed to the change.

The Second World War brought dramatic changes to the timing of home-leaving for young Americans. Increased military service and the transformation of economy and society spurred by wartime mobilization mobilization

Organization of a nation's armed forces for active military service in time of war or other national emergency. It includes recruiting and training, building military bases and training camps, and procuring and distributing weapons, ammunition, uniforms,
 drew young people away from their homes. After the war the process was never fully reversed, so that at the time of the 1950 census young men were still more likely than in 1940 to be living apart from their parents, and young women were about to experience the same trend. The draft and near-compulsory military service was only part of the process, even with the continuing military obligations of the United States in Asia and Europe Europe (yr`əp), 6th largest continent, c.4,000,000 sq mi (10,360,000 sq km) including adjacent islands (1992 est. pop. 512,000,000).  throughout the 1950s and 1960s, and into the 1970s. The end of the Second World War brought with it a sharp increase in marriages for whites, if not for blacks. Through policies like the G.I. bill and state-sponsored post-secondary education, more and more young people attended colleges and universities, and in doing so lived away from home.

The War and Post-War decline in home-leaving ages was short-lived in our view, especially when compared with the assessments of other historians. There was no century-long trend toward declining ages of leaving home. Instead, the pattern was over after 1960 for blacks and 1970 for whites, to be followed by a new set of paradigms for young people. These new paradigms New Paradigm

In the investing world, a totally new way of doing things that has a huge effect on business.

Notes:
The word "paradigm" is defined as a pattern or model, and it has been used in science to refer to a theoretical framework.
 were experienced by the young people we have called the Baby Boomers and After. Reduced obligations for military service led more young people to live at home with their parents. So did more available local higher education in the form of community colleges. Finally, and most difficult to define, changing expectations in terms of consumption and living arrangements made it more likely that some young people would choose to return to living with their parents in order to spend more of their disposable income disposable income

Portion of an individual's income over which the recipient has complete discretion. To assess disposable income, it is necessary to determine total income, including not only wages and salaries, interest and dividend payments, and business profits, but also
 on cars, food, and consumer goods consumer goods

Any tangible commodity purchased by households to satisfy their wants and needs. Consumer goods may be durable or nondurable. Durable goods (e.g., autos, furniture, and appliances) have a significant life span, often defined as three years or more, and
, and less on rent.

The results we have presented are not simply about trends through time that cut across all groups within the society of the United States. We have identified equally dramatic variations by sex and race. The importance of military service in our explanations means that our findings are more dramatic for men than for women. For women, the temporal Having to do with time. Contrast with "spatial," which deals with space.  trends that we associate with the Second World war and its aftermath AFTERMATH. A right to have the last crop of grass or pasturage. 1 Chit. Pr. 181.  are less dramatic than they are for men. On the other hand, the liberating lib·er·ate  
tr.v. lib·er·at·ed, lib·er·at·ing, lib·er·ates
1. To set free, as from oppression, confinement, or foreign control.

2. Chemistry To release (a gas, for example) from combination.
 social forces in the second half of the century that allowed women more flexibility in the choices they make about their lives have led to substantial long-term changes in the home-leaving experiences.

Similarly, young people of African descent descent, in anthropology, method of classifying individuals in terms of their various kinship connections. Matrilineal and patrilineal descent refer to the mother's or father's sib (or other group), respectively.  in America America [for Amerigo Vespucci], the lands of the Western Hemisphere—North America, Central (or Middle) America, and South America. The world map published in 1507 by Martin Waldseemüller is the first known cartographic use of the name.  have had a noticeably no·tice·a·ble  
adj.
1. Evident; observable: noticeable changes in temperature; a noticeable lack of friendliness.

2. Worthy of notice; significant.
 different set of experiences than those of the white majority. While the gendered impact of military service for men was shared by blacks and whites, racial variations in education and employment have distinguished the two largest racial groups in the U.S. The housing shortage that led to more black than white young married couples living with their parents was probably a consequence of both greater black poverty and slower housing construction in some communities. The boom in higher education that followed the Second World War was more pronounced for white men and women than for blacks, despite 0.1. Bill benefits for all veterans. Employment opportunities have generally been greater for whites than blacks as well. Taken together, these factors led to less dramatic changes for blacks than for whites after World War II, especially in the 1960s when the impact of higher education growth may have been most rapid. In all this, region, res idence, and migration have mattered as well, a sign of their continued importance in the development of American society.

The timing of home-leaving matters because, for much of the twentieth century, home-leaving was the starting point for a range of processes that signaled the transition from youth to adulthood. Most young people left home to marry, complete their education, serve in the military, or to work. With those changes came parenthood and economic independence. The timing of the components of home-leaving has changed, making the whole process occur earlier or later, or even become reversible reversible,
adj capable of going through a series of changes in either direction, forward or backward (e.g., reversible chemical reaction).

reversible hydrocolloid,
n See hydrocolloid, reversible.
 as people return home. In these transitions we see the outline of change in their lives and in the experiences of American society as a whole.

The wider message in our results is about the close correlation between the timing of home-leaving for young Americans over the past century and longer, and the broadest social and cultural transformations that we have experienced. There should be little surprise in that, but the story told here shows that the big themes of transformation in migration, education, and military service, coupled with the expansion of civil rights and the social emancipation Ask a Lawyer

Question
Country: United States of America
State: Maryland

I am 17 years old and would like to know if I would be able to file for minor emancipation.
 of women and young adults, has had a measurable impact on lives. We have made a cultural and social world for our children, and they have lived in it and shaped it and their own lives at the same time.

[Figure 1 omitted]

[Figure 2 omitted]

[Figure 3 omitted]

[Figure 4 omitted]

[Figure 5 omitted]

[Figure 6 omitted]

[Figure 7 omitted]

[Figure 8 omitted]

[Figure 9 omitted]

[Figure 10 omitted]

[Figure 11 omitted]

[Figure 12 omitted]

[Figure 13 omitted]

[Figure 14 omitted]

ENDNOTES

(1.) This research has been supported by grant HD33554 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. We thank Michele Michele

murders wife’s lover; hides body under cloak. [Ital. Opera: Puccini, The Cloak, Westerman, 362–363]

See : Murder
 Butler, who got us started on this topic, and on the other members of the Great Plains Population and Environment group in Austin Austin.

1 City (1990 pop. 21,907), seat of Mower co., SE Minn., on the Cedar River, near the Iowa line; inc. 1868. The commercial and industrial center of a rich farm region, it is noted as home to the Hormel meatpacking company, whose Spam Town museum
, as well as to Matt Sobek Sebek, Sochet, Sobk, Sobki, Soknopais, and in Greek, Suchos) was the deification of crocodiles, and was originally a demon, as crocodiles were deeply feared in the nation so dependent on the Nile River. . We presented earlier versions of this paper at the Annual Meetings of the Population Association of America in New York New York, state, United States
New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of
, March, 1999, and the Social Science History Association in Fort Worth, November November: see month. , 1999, and at seminars at Brown University, at SUNY SUNY - State University of New York  University at Albany Albany, town, Australia
Albany (ăl`bənē), town (1996 pop. 14,590), Western Australia, SW Australia. It is a port on Princess Royal Harbour of King George Sound. The town has woolen mills and fish canneries.
, and the University of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries.  in 2000. We are grateful for all the helpful suggestions we received from those audiences.

(2.) The census enumeration forms for 1890 were destroyed in a fire, making detailed analysis of the 1890 census impossible; no 1930 census data are available for this analysis, because those census schedules will not be available for consultation until 2002, and the preparation of public use data files will then take several years. See the discussion of sources and methods later in this article for more details.

(3.) In order to simplify analysis, we have excluded persons who were not classified as "white" or "black" in the census. In all years, persons of Hispanic Hispanic Multiculture A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race Social medicine Any of 17 major Latino subcultures, concentrated in California, Texas, Chicago, Miam, NY, and elsewhere  origin are classified as "white."

(4.) Frances K. Goldscheider and Calvin Goldscheider, "Leaving and Returning Home in 20th Century America," Population Bulletin 48 (1994): 1-34; Timothy Timothy, epistles in the New Testament
Timothy, two letters of the New Testament. With Titus they comprise the Pastoral Epistles, in which St. Paul addresses his coworkers as the guardians and transmitters of his teaching.
 W. Guinnane and Myron Myron (mī`rən), fl. 5th cent. B.C., Greek sculptor. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Ageladas of Argos, but he worked largely in Athens.  P. Gutmann Gutmann may refer to:
  • Gutmann method, an algorithm that is used to totally erase the contents of a given section, such as a file on a computer drive, for security
  • Palais Gutmann, a Ringstraßenpalais in Vienna
Gutmann
, "Leaving Home in Nineteenth Century Texas" (Unpublished paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Social Science History Association: 1992); Francesca Fran·ce·sca   , Piero della

See Piero della Francesca.
 A. Florey and Avery A·ver·y , Oswald 1877-1955.

American bacteriologist noted for establishing (1944) that DNA is responsible for the transmission of heritable characteristics.
 M. Guest, "Coming of Age among U.S. Farm Boys in the Late 1800s: Occupational and Residential Choices," Journal of Family History 13 (1988): 233-249; John Modell, et al., "Social Change and Transitions to Adulthood in Historical Perspective," Journal of Family History 1 (1976): 7-32.

(5.) For an example of census-based research, see David A. Stevens, "New Evidence on the Timing of Early Life Course Transitions: The United States 1900 to 1980," Journal of Family History 15 (1990): 163-178. While our findings contradict con·tra·dict  
v. con·tra·dict·ed, con·tra·dict·ing, con·tra·dicts

v.tr.
1. To assert or express the opposite of (a statement).

2. To deny the statement of. See Synonyms at deny.
 his, we do not emphasize the divergence divergence

In mathematics, a differential operator applied to a three-dimensional vector-valued function. The result is a function that describes a rate of change. The divergence of a vector v is given by
 here. We believe that there are errors in his quantitative analysis Quantitative Analysis

A security analysis that uses financial information derived from company annual reports and income statements to evaluate an investment decision.

Notes:
, but the article is unclear about methods, and we could not locate the author for clarification Clarification

The removal of small amounts of fine, particulate solids from liquids. The purpose is almost invariably to improve the quality of the liquid, and the removed solids often are discarded.
.

(6.) Goldscheider and Goldscheider 1994.

(7.) Modell et al.; Stevens.

(8.) Goldscheider and Goldscheider 1994; F. Goldscheider and C. Goldscheider, The Changing Transition to Adulthood: Leaving and Returning Home (Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , 1999).

(9.) C. Horace Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) (hôr`əs), 65 B.C.–8 B.C., Latin poet, one of the greatest of lyric poets, b. Venusia, S Italy. He studied at Rome and Athens and, joining Brutus and the republicans, fought (42 B.C.) at Philippi.  Hamilton Hamilton, city, Bermuda
Hamilton, city (1990 est. pop. 3,100), capital of Bermuda, on Bermuda Island. It is a port at the head of Great Sound, a huge lagoon and deepwater harbor protected by coral reefs.
, "The Annual Rate of Departure of Rural Youths from Their Parental Homes," Rural Sociology Rural sociology is a field of sociology associated with the study of social life in non-metropolitan areas. More concisely, it is the scientific study of social arrangements and behaviour amongst people distanced from points of concentrated population or economic activity.  1(1936): 164-179

(10.) Timothy W. Guinnane, The Vanishing Irish: Households, Migration, and the Rural Economy in Ireland, 1850-1914 (Princeton Princeton, borough (1990 pop. 12,016) and surrounding township (1990 pop. 13,198), Mercer co., W central N.J.; settled late 1600s, borough inc. 1813, township est. 1838. A leading education center, it is the seat of Princeton Univ. , 1997).

(11.) Fred (Friendly Rollabout Engineered for Doctors) A mobile medical conferencing unit. See videoconferencing.

1. FRED - Robert Carr. Language used by Framework, Ashton-Tate.
2.
 C. Pampel, "Changes in the Propensity to Live Alone: Evidence from Consecutive Cross-Sectional Surveys, 1960-1976," Demography demography (dĭmŏg`rəfē), science of human population. Demography represents a fundamental approach to the understanding of human society.  20 (1983): 433-447.

(12.) Frances K. Goldscheider and Calvin Goldscheider, Leaving Home Before Marriage: Ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , Familism Fam´i`lism

n. 1. The tenets of the Familists.
familism
the beliefs of the familists, members of an antinomian sect of 16th-and 17th-century Europe. — familist, n. — familistic, adj.
 and Generational Relationships (Madison Madison, cities, United States
Madison.

1 City (1990 pop. 12,006), seat of Jefferson co., SE Ind., on the Ohio River; settled c.1806, inc. 1838. It is a port of entry and a tobacco marketing center.
, 1993), 169-186.

(13.) Florey and Guest.

(14.) Ibid, 246-247.

(15.) Elliott Elliott may refer to:

possessing the best body in the whole world. like the hottest, sexiest body ever! the feeling of his skin kills me and sends me straight to heaven.
 West, Growing Up in Twentieth-Century America: A History and Reference Guide (London London, city, Canada
London, city (1991 pop. 303,165), SE Ont., Canada, on the Thames River. The site was chosen in 1792 by Governor Simcoe to be the capital of Upper Canada, but York was made capital instead. London was settled in 1826.
, 1996), 207-208.

(16.) Ibid, 288-295.

(17.) Claudia Goldin Claudia Goldin (born 1946-05-14) is Henry Lee Professor of Economics at Harvard University.

Goldin is a director of the Development of the American Economy Program, and is a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), located in Cambridge,
, "A Brief History of Education in the United States The history of education in the United States, often called foundations of education, is the study of educational policy, formal institutions and informal learning from the 17th to the 21st century. History
The first American schools opened during the colonial era.
." Working Paper Series on Historical Factors in Long Run Growth, Historical Paper 119 (1999): 13-14.

(18.) Matthew Matthew

one of the twelve disciples. [N.T.: Matthew]

See : Evangelism
 Sobek, "A Century of Work: Gender, Labor Force Participation, and Occupational Attainment in the United States, 1880-1990" (University of Minnesota: Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion  
n.
A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis.


dissertation
Noun

1.
, 1997).

(19.) Goldscheider and Goldscheider, 1994.

(20.) John Modell, Into One's Own: From Youth to Adulthood in the United States, 1920-1975 (Berkeley Berkeley (bûr`klē), city (1990 pop. 102,724), Alameda co., W Calif., on the E shore of San Francisco Bay just N of Oakland; inc. 1878. Originally (1820) part of a Spanish rancho, the site was purchased by Americans in 1853. , 1989).

(21.) Goldscheider and Goldscheider, 1994.

(22.) Ibid.

(23.) Stevens: 176.

(24.) Stevens.

(25.) For a more complete discussion of our computation of orphanhood rates, see Appendix B.

(26.) Steven Ste´ven

n. 1. Voice; speech; language.
Ye have as merry a steven
As any angel hath that is in heaven.
- Chaucer.

2. An outcry; a loud call; a clamor.
To set steven
to make an appointment.
 Ruggles Ruggles can refer to:
  • Carl Ruggles, American composer (1876-1971).
  • David Ruggles, abolitionist (1810-1849)
  • Ruggles (MBTA station), a train station on the Orange Line of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
  • Ruggles of Red Gap
 and Matthew Sobek, Integrated Public Use Microdata Microdata Corporation was an Irvine, California based computer company, developing hardware and operating systems to run its REALITY environment. It later was taken over by its International distributor CMC Leasings, which in turn was taken over in 1983 by McDonnell Douglas  Series: Version 2.0 (Minneapolis Minneapolis (mĭn'ēăp`əlĭs), city (1990 pop. 368,383), seat of Hennepin co., E Minn., at the head of navigation on the Mississippi River, at St. Anthony Falls; inc. 1856. : Minnesota Minnesota, state, United States
Minnesota (mĭn'ĭsō`tə), upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bordered by Lake Superior and Wisconsin (E), Iowa (S), South Dakota and North Dakota (W), and the Canadian provinces
 Historical Census Projects, University of Minnesota, 1997).

(27.) The definition of a farm changes from census to census. See Ruggles and Sobek; Margo margo /mar·go/ (mahr´go) pl. mar´gines   margin.

margo

pl. margines [L.] border; margin. See also margin.
 J. Anderson Anderson, river, Canada
Anderson, river, c.465 mi (750 km) long, rising in several lakes in N central Northwest Territories, Canada. It meanders north and west before receiving the Carnwath River and flowing north to Liverpool Bay, an arm of the Arctic
, The American Census: A Social History (New Haven New Haven, city (1990 pop. 130,474), New Haven co., S Conn., a port of entry where the Quinnipiac and other small rivers enter Long Island Sound; inc. 1784. Firearms and ammunition, clocks and watches, tools, rubber and paper products, and textiles are among the many , 1988); U.S. Bureau of the Census Noun 1. Bureau of the Census - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States
Census Bureau
, Twenty Censuses: Population and Housing Questions, 1790-1980 (Washington Washington, town, England
Washington, town (1991 pop. 48,856), Sunderland metropolitan district, NE England. Washington was designated one of the new towns in 1964 to alleviate overpopulation in the Tyneside-Wearside area.
, 1979).

(28.) John Hajnal John Hajnal (b. 26 November 1924) was Professor of Statistics, London School of Economics, 1975-86.

Education: University College School, London; Balliol College, Oxford.
, "Age at Marriage and Proportions Marrying," Populations Studies 7 (1953): 111-36; Ansley J. Coale Ansley Johnson Coale (1917-2002), was one of America's foremost demographers. A native of Baltimore, Maryland, he earned his B.A. in 1939, his M.A. in 1941, and (after a period of service in the Navy) his Ph.D. in 1947, all at Princeton University. , "Age Patterns of Marriage," Population Studies 25 (1971): 193-214; Ansley J. Coale and David McNeil McNeil can have a number of possible meanings and spellings: Places
  • McNeil, Arkansas, USA (Also called the Big West)
  • McNeil Island, Washington, USA
  • McNeil River, Alaska, USA
  • McNeill, West Virginia, USA
  • Port McNeill, British Columbia, Canada
, "The Distribution by Age of the Frequency of First Marriage in a Female Cohort," Journal of the American Statistical Association Established in 1888 and published quarterly in March, June, September, and December, the Journal of the American Statistical Association (JASA) has long been considered the premier journal of statistical science.  67 (1972): 743-40.

(29.) There were relatively few housing starts between 1930 and 1945, which led to severe housing shortages during the war, which continued for some time afterward af·ter·ward   also af·ter·wards
adv.
At a later time; subsequently.

Adv. 1. afterward - happening at a time subsequent to a reference time; "he apologized subsequently"; "he's going to the store but he'll be back here
. Kenneth T. Jackson Kenneth Terry Jackson (born 1939) is a professor of history and social sciences at Columbia University. A frequent television guest, he is best known as an urban historian and a preeminent authority on New York City, where he lives on the Upper West Side. , Crabgrass crabgrass, name for any of several grass species of the genera Digitaria, Eleusine, and Panicum, especially the species D. sanguinalis. Crabgrass is a common lawn weed, especially in the S and E United States.  Frontier frontier, in U.S. history, the border area of settlement of Europeans and their descendants; it was vital in the conquest of the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific. : The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 232.

(30.) U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Housing, 1960, Volume I: States and Small Areas, Part I: United States Summary (Washington, D.C., 1961), xxviii-xxiv.

(31.) The decreasing likelihood of immigrants to leave home in the late twentieth century is a complex issue. One cause of the reversal in that appears in our regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism.
regression

In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set.
 results is the increasing trend for immigrants to enter the United States as a family (West, 1992, 299). A second possibility is that foreign-born young adults were less likely to leave home for non-job related reasons, which include education and financial pressures (Goldscheider and Goldscheider, 1999, 135). We do not control for these variables in this regression. Finally, we know that immigrants were less likely than native-born people to leave home for premarital residential independence in the late twentieth century (Goldscheider and Goldscheider, 1993, 35). The importance of marriage in the leaving-home patterns of the foreign-born may explain the difference in Table 11 and our regression results, as only the regressions control for independent variables such as marriage.

(32.) Ruggles and Sobek.

(33.) John Hajnal, "Age at Marriage and Proportions Marrying," Population Studies 7 (1953): 111-136.

(34.) Coale; Coale and McNeil.

(35.) Michael Michael, archangel
Michael (mī`kəl) [Heb.,=who is like God?], archangel prominent in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim traditions. In the Bible and early Jewish literature, Michael is one of the angels of God's presence.
 R. Haines Haines refers to: Persons named Haines
  • Avery Haines (1966–), Canadian television journalist
  • Daniel Haines (1801–1877), American jurist and governor of New Jersey
  • Donald Haines (1918–1941), American child actor (Our Gang)
, "Estimated Life Tables for the United States, 1850-1910," Historical Methods 31 (1998): 149-170; Vital Statistics of the United States, 1990, Volume II: Mortality: Part A (Hyattsville Hyattsville, city (1990 pop. 13,864), Prince Georges co., W central Md., a suburb of Washington, D.C.; inc. 1886. Hyattsville is a residential community with some light industry and commercial activity. , MD, 1994), 6.14.

APPENDIX A

Data and Methods for this Analysis

Sources of Data

For this paper, we use individual-level data from the United States Census The United States Census is a decennial census mandated by the United States Constitution.[1] The population is enumerated every 10 years and the results are used to allocate Congressional seats ("congressional apportionment"), electoral votes, and government program  of Population. Our data come from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) prepared by the University of Minnesota. (32) We examine patterns in home leaving ages for the U.S. from 1880 to 1990. Within that context we look at the differences between males and females, blacks and whites, farm and non-farm residents, regional populations, and married and unmarried. Our analysis is twofold. We calculate medians and quartiles of the age at leaving home by sex and race, using a fitted curve fitted curve

see fitted curve.
 derived de·rive  
v. de·rived, de·riv·ing, de·rives

v.tr.
1. To obtain or receive from a source.

2.
 from a logit regression model. We also use logit regressions for each sex and race subgroup sub·group  
n.
1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group.

2. A subordinate group.

3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group.

tr.v.
 to test for the influence of contextual factors on the age at leaving home. In this analysis we assume that the IPUMS samples are flat samples, and we have not used weights or attempted to adjust for unrepresentative Adj. 1. unrepresentative - not exemplifying a class; "I soon tumbled to the fact that my weekends were atypical"; "behavior quite unrepresentative (or atypical) of the profession"  cases.

The coding of family relationships in the IPUMS data sets gives us a straightforward way to characterize whether young people were still living with their parents or not, and then to estimate the ages at which the transition took place. The IPUMS data sets consistently provide two variables (momloc and poploc) that tell whether a person's mother or father is living in the same household, and then identifies that person in the data. We have used any valid value for these variables to indicate that a person is still living with his or her mother or father; a value of zero indicates that the person has already left his or her household of origin.

We analyze an·a·lyze
v.
1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.

2. To separate a chemical substance into its constituent elements to determine their nature or proportions.

3.
 this transition from living with parents, to living away from parents, within a multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model.  statistical framework. Such a framework allows us to include several predictors of the transition simultaneously, to estimate the intensity of their effects individually and in the presence of other predictors, to evaluate the statistical significance of these effects, and to produce fitted values.

Estimating the Distribution of Home-Leaving Ages

Our major methodological challenge is that our data do not include information about actual transitions, but are limited to cross-sectional information about whether individual persons do or do not live with their parents at a single point in time. An age distribution at the time of a census must be synthesized syn·the·sized  
adj.
1. Relating to or being an instrument whose sound is modified or augmented by a synthesizer.

2. Relating to or being compositions or a composition performed on synthesizers or synthesized instruments.
 into the behavior over time of an artificial or synthetic Synthetic

A financial instrument that is created artificially by simulating another instrument with the combined features of a collection of other assets.

Notes:
 cohort, in the same sense that a life table is a synthesis of cross-sectional data Cross-sectional data in statistics and econometrics is a type of one-dimensional data set. Cross-sectional data refers to data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms or countries/regions) at the same point of time, or without regard to differences in time.  on mortality and survivorship survivorship n. the right to receive full title or ownership due to having survived another person. Survivorship is particularly applied to persons owning real property or other assets, such as bank accounts or stocks, in "joint tenancy. . A life table is typically summarized with the mean age at death, or expectation of life, but it could also be summarized with the median age at death, and perhaps the first and third quartiles of the age at death. Here we would like to estimate the quartiles of the distribution of age at leaving home, within categories of covariates.

As a demographic transition, leaving home is much more comparable to marriage than to death. Most of these transitions occur within a fairly narrow range of ages, about fifteen years, and not everyone makes the transition. Persons who have made the transition remain in the population and can be observed in a census or survey.

We will briefly describe two methods, well established in the demographic literature, for describing the distribution of age at first marriage. The first, due to John Hajnal, is called the singulate mean age at marriage (SMAM SMAM Secretaria Municipal do Meio Ambiente
SMAM Studio de Musique Ancienne de Montréal
SMAM Singulate Mean Age at Marriage
SMAM Standard Materials and Metrology for Nanotechnology (symposium)
SMAM Sumitomo Mitsui Asset Management
). (33) It uses the proportions of women at each age who are still unmarried, typically from a census. After removing an estimate of the proportion of women who will not marry by age 55, the SMAM calculates the mean number of years lived in the unmarried state, which is interpreted as a synthetic cohort estimate of the mean age at marriage (for those who marry by age 55).

A second method to describe age at marriage is due to Coale and McNeil. (34) They observed a widespread international regularity in the distribution of age at marriage, which they were able to fit very well with a specific function having three parameters. The risk or hazard hazard

a risk.


hazard analysis critical control points
a systematic procedure used to identify specific hazards (for example in food production) and establish control systems that focus on preventive measures rather than rely on
 that an unmarried person of age a will marry in the interval a to a + da was found by Coale and McNeil to be closely approximated with a double exponential function
This article is about double exponential functions. For the double exponential distribution, see Laplace distribution.


A double exponential function is a constant raised to the power of an exponential function.
. The three parameters can be interpreted as an initial age when marriages begin to be observed, the mean age at marriage, and the proportion who never marry.

These two approaches can be modified mod·i·fy  
v. mod·i·fied, mod·i·fy·ing, mod·i·fies

v.tr.
1. To change in form or character; alter.

2.
 to produce estimates of the mean age at leaving home or the quartiles of the age at leaving home, with cross-sectional data on the proportions still at home, rather than the proportions still unmarried. However, neither approach has any of the desirable properties of a multivariate statistical model. Estimates must be re-calculated within separate categories or combinations of predictors, there is no easy way to hold other covariates constant, and there are no estimates of standard errors. Therefore, we prefer to draw on statistical rather than demographic methods.

For most populations, when cross-sectional data on the proportion of persons who have left home is graphed against age, the curve has the clear shape of an ogive o·give  
n.
1. Statistics
a. A distribution curve in which the frequencies are cumulative.

b. A frequency distribution.

2. Architecture
a. A diagonal rib of a Gothic vault.
. For the youngest ages, the proportion is close to zero; it typically increases gradually grad·u·al  
adj.
Advancing or progressing by regular or continuous degrees: gradual erosion; a gradual slope.

n. Roman Catholic Church
1.
 in the early teens, very steeply steep 1  
adj. steep·er, steep·est
1. Having a sharp inclination; precipitous.

2. At a rapid or precipitous rate: a steep rise in salaries.

3.
a.
 in the late teens and early twenties, and then levels off at a high level in the late twenties. It does not appear to have an asymptote asymptote

In mathematics, a line or curve that acts as the limit of another line or curve. For example, a descending curve that approaches but does not reach the horizontal axis is said to be asymptotic to that axis, which is the asymptote of the curve.
 of one.

This kind of curve can be fitted with hazard models, but it can also be fitted very well, and more simply, with a logit model that includes age, age squared, and covariates. A quadratic quadratic, mathematical expression of the second degree in one or more unknowns (see polynomial). The general quadratic in one unknown has the form ax2+bx+c, where a, b, and c are constants and x is the variable.  term for age is needed because the deceleration deceleration /de·cel·er·a·tion/ (de-sel?er-a´shun) decrease in rate or speed.

early deceleration
 in the rate of leaving home in the later ages is typically less than the acceleration acceleration, change in the velocity of a body with respect to time. Since velocity is a vector quantity, involving both magnitude and direction, acceleration is also a vector. In order to produce an acceleration, a force must be applied to the body.  in the earlier ages.

After considerable testing of alternatives, we ran such logit regressions on the individual-level files for persons aged 15--29 for each census year, with a binary Meaning two. The principle behind digital computers. All input to the computer is converted into binary numbers made up of the two digits 0 and 1 (bits). For example, when you press the "A" key on your keyboard, the keyboard circuit generates and transfers the number 01000001 to the  dependent variable that was 1 if the person was not living with parents and 0 if still living with parents. Because sex and race frequently had significant interactions with the other four covariates--marital status, farm/nonfarm residence, nativity, and region-we did separate analyses within each of the four combinations of sex and race. We first did logit regressions with no covariates; with each of the four covariates; and then with all four, in which each of these covariates would be adjusted for the effect of the other three. The significance of a covariate covariate

predictors during the allocation of experimental units in a randomized design.
, before or after adjustment for the others, is indicated by the standard error for the coefficients in these logit regressions or by the improvement in fit when the covariate is included.

The median age (or second quartile) at leaving home was found by determining the value of age for which the fitted logit was log(.50/.50) = 0. The first quartile of the distribution is the value of age for which the fitted logit is log(.25/.75) = -log(3) and the third quartile is the value of age for which the fitted logit is log(.75/.25) = log(3). Standard errors of the estimated quartiles were also estimated but are not included in the present paper, in order to avoid excessive complexity.

Calculating Estimates of Orphanhood

Haines gives plausible decennial life tables for 1850 through 1900, based on the Coale and Demeny model West life tables. After 1900, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979
Health and Human Services, HHS
 gives decennial life tables based on vital statistics data. (35) A complete series of life tables is available from these sources for the total population of the United States, separately for males and females but not for other subpopulations.

We assumed that persons were born when both parents were exactly age 30 and then estimated the probability that the mother and father (separately) would have survived to exact ages 45, 50, 55, and 60, at which time the child would be aged 15, 20, 25, and 30, respectively. For example, to estimate the probability that the father of a 20-year old in 1900 was still alive, we calculated the probabilities of surviving from 30 to 35, 35 to 40, 40 to 45, and 45 to 50. These four survival probabilities were drawn from life tables for 1885, 1890, 1895, and 1900, and multiplied mul·ti·ply 1  
v. mul·ti·plied, mul·ti·ply·ing, mul·ti·plies

v.tr.
1. To increase the amount, number, or degree of.

2. Mathematics To perform multiplication on.
 together. (The probability of surviving from 30 to 35 in 1885, for example, was obtained as the geometric mean (mathematics) geometric mean - The Nth root of the product of N numbers.

If each number in a list of numbers was replaced with their geometric mean, then multiplying them all together would still give the same result.
 of the probability of surviving from 30 to 35 in 1880 and 1890.) Finally, the probability that this father was not still alive in 1900 was multiplied by the probability that the mother was not still alive, giving the probability that both had died and the child was an orphan. This step assumes that the survival of the mother and the su rvival of the father are independent. It is likely that they are not independent, but are positively correlated cor·re·late  
v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates

v.tr.
1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.

2.
.
APPENDIX B

Source Tables for Graphical Data Presented in the Text.

Table B.1

Estimated Quartiles for Number of Years Lived with One or Both Parents,
United States, 1880-1990

                        1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970

White Males

 1st Quartile           18.5  18.8  18.9  20.0  20.9  20.6  18.5  18.6
 2nd Quartile (Median)  22.3  22.6  22.0  23.3  24.3  23.4  20.5  20.4
 3rd Quartile           26.2  27.0  26.5  28.0  28.9  27.5  23.3  22.9

White Females

 1st Quartile           15.2  16.6  17.4  17.9  18.4  19.5  17.8  18.0
 2nd Quartile (Median)  19.4  20.1  20.2  20.5  22.2  23.3  20.7  20.7
 3rd Quartile           22.9  23.7  23.7  24.1  26.5  27.9  24.6  24.4

Black Males

 1st Quartile           17.2  17.6  17.9  18.5  18.8  18.8  17.8  18.1
 2nd Quartile (Median)  20.3  20.8  20.9  21.4  21.6  21.2  19.4  19.7
 3rd Quartile           24.6  25.2  25.4  26.1  26.2  24.8  21.5  21.8

Black Females

 1st Quartile           15.9  16.2  16.6  16.9  17.1  18.0  17.2  17.8
 2nd Quartile (Median)  18.3  19.8  19.1  19.3  20.0  21.3  19.7  20.2
 3rd Quartile           21.3  22.8  22.6  22.6  24.3  27.1  23.1  23.3

                        1980  1990

White Males

 1st Quartile           18.8  19.1
 2nd Quartile (Median)  20.9  21.7
 3rd Quartile           23.6  25.3

White Females

 1st Quartile           18.7  18.5
 2nd Quartile (Median)  21.7  22.6
 3rd Quartile           25.9   *

Black Males

 1st Quartile           18.2  18.5
 2nd Quartile (Median)  19.9  20.6
 3rd Quartile           22.1  23.4

Black Females

 1st Quartile           18.4  18.5
 2nd Quartile (Median)  21.0  21.8
 3rd Quartile           24.6  27.2

(*)Estimate unavailable due to limitations in the data. As the median
age at which white women leave home increases, it approaches the upper
age limit of our data sample. This, combined with the slope of the
change over time, produced clearly erroneous results.

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.
Table B.2

Percent Ever Married, by Age, United States, 1880-1980

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males
 Aged 20-24    20.5  19.5  22.3  27.2  26.6  37.6  32.0  45.4  33.7
White Females
 Aged 15-19    11.0  11.2  11.1  12.0  10.8  13.7  14.0  12.1   9.6
White Females
 Aged 20-24    49.4  45.9  48.6  52.9  51.2  65.3  41.2  65.3  51.8
Black Males
 Aged 20-24    39.0  34.1  41.0  44.6  40.8  43.9  30.6  40.9  22.2
Black Females
 Aged 15-19    18.4  16.3  18.4  22.9  18.4  18.8  13.9  11.5   4.8
Black Females
 Aged 20-24    65.3  59.9  66.2  69.2  63.5  65.6  38.8  56.7  32.4

               1990

White Males
 Aged 20-24    23.8
White Females
 Aged 15-19     6.0
White Females
 Aged 20-24    40.4
Black Males
 Aged 20-24    14.8
Black Females
 Aged 15-19     3.1
Black Females
 Aged 20-24    20.5

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year.
Table B.3

Percent of Persons aged 15-19 in Labor Force, United States, 1880-1980

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  (*) 1980

White Males    70.0  67.5  70.1  57.6  34.3  43.6  44.4  64.1    61.2
White Females  23.7  27.4  32.6  34.7  18.2  26.1  28.7  49.5    56.2
Black Males    86.6  81.3  84.9  69.4  49.8  52.3  36.6  49.1    42.4
Black Females  54.1  48.0  60.3  40.5  24.4  21.4  19.8  36.9    37.0

               1990

White Males    54.5
White Females  51.4
Black Males    39.1
Black Females  38.1

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year.

Figures for 1980 are for persons aged 16-19.
Table B.4

Percent of Persons Aged 15-19 Attending School, United States, 1880-1980

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males    35.2  31.5  39.5  39.6  57.7  64.0  72.0  81.1  75.3
White Females  29.5  32.2  40.5  41.5  56.3  59.7  68.0  76.7  75.0
Black Males    14.0  17.6  25.6  31.8  43.5  52.1  64.0  74.0  74.6
Black Females  14.9  21.7  32.5  36.8  45.9  53.7  62.6  72.3  76.6

               1990

White Males    80.5
White Females  81.1
Black Males    77.7
Black Females  79.8

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year.
Table B.5

Percent of Persons Who Have Served in Military by Cohort Aged 15-19

               1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males
 Veteran        6.4  58.6  73.3  47.1  37.0  15.0
 No Service    17.6  39.5  24.9  51.5  63.0  85.0
 N/A           75.6   1.9   1.8   1.4   0.0   0.0

Black Males
 Veteran        4.5  44.1  58.5  33.4  30.7  19.9
 No Service    18.1  54.8  39.8  64.8  69.3  80.1
 N/A           77.4   1.1   1.7   1.8   0.0   0.0

White Females
 Veteran        0.0   0.0   0.0   1.1   1.2   1.5
 No Service     0.0   0.0   0.0  98.8  98.8  98.5
 N/A            0.0   0.0   0.0   0.0   0.0   0.0

Black Females
 Veteran        0.0   0.0   0.0   1.2   1.8   2.7
 No Service     0.0   0.0   0.0  98.7  98.2  97.3
 N/A            0.0   0.0   0.0   0.1   0.0   0.0

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year. For explanation of tabulations, see caption for
Figure 5.
Table B.6

Population Aged 15-19 by Nativity, Percentages

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males
 Native Born   86.7  85.8  75.0  87.6  96.7  97.5  96.8  96.0  94.0
 Foreign Born  13.3  14.2  25.0  12.4   3.3   2.5   3.2   4.0   6.0

Black Males
 Native Born   99.6  99.4  96.7  98.6  98.9  98.9  98.9  98.2  95.8
 Foreign Born   0.4   0.6   3.3   1.4   1.1   1.1   1.1   1.8   4.2

White Females
 Native Born   87.5  86.1  81.0  88.5  96.5  97.1  96.3  95.5  94.4
 Foreign Born  12.5  13.9  19.0  11.5   3.5   2.9   3.7   4.5   5.6

Black Females
 Native Born   99.6  99.9  97.5  99.0  99.0  99.1  99.2  98.1  96.0
 Foreign Born   0.4   0.1   2.5   1.0   1.0   0.9   0.8   1.9   4.0

               1990

White Males
 Native Born   90.6
 Foreign Born   9.4

Black Males
 Native Born   94.0
 Foreign Born   6.0

White Females
 Native Born   92.1
 Foreign Born   7.9

Black Females
 Native Born   94.1
 Foreign Born   5.9

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year.
Table B.7

Estimated Probability of Orphanhood (both parents dead) by time period
and child's age, United States, 1880-1990

     1880   1890   1900   1910   1920   1930   1940   1950   1960   1970

15  0.025  0.024  0.018  0.016  0.012  0.010  0.006  0.003  0.002  0.001
20  0.047  0.047  0.037  0.033  0.027  0.023  0.017  0.010  0.005  0.004
25  0.086  0.083  0.071  0.061  0.052  0.046  0.038  0.025  0.015  0.011
30  0.147  0.140  0.122  0.113  0.095  0.086  0.076  0.056  0.038  0.028

     1980   1990

15  0.001  0.001
20  0.003  0.002
25  0.008  0.006
30  0.021  0.015

Source: Estimated from life tables presented in Historical Methods and
Vital Statistics of the United States. For explanation of method, see
Appendix A.
Table B.8

Estimated Inter-Quartile Ranges in Age at Leaving Home, 1880-1990

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males     7.8   8.2   7.6   8.0   8.0   6.9   4.8   4.3   4.8
White Females   7.7   7.1   6.3   6.2   8.1   8.4   6.8   6.4   7.2
Black Males     7.4   7.7   7.5   7.6   7.4   6.0   3.7   3.7   3.9
Black Females   5.4   6.6   6.0   5.7   7.2   9.1   5.9   5.5   6.2

               1990

White Males     6.2
White Females     *
Black Males     4.9
Black Females   8.7

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.

For 1990 the third quartile figure is unavailable. (see Table 1).
Table B.9.

Percent of Persons Aged 15-29 who live with Parents, by Marital Status,
Race and Sex

                         1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970

Married White Males
 Live with Parents        6.8   6.3   9.4  11.0  12.4  14.2   5.9   4.8
 Live away from Parents  93.2  93.7  90.6  89.0  87.6  85.8  94.1  95.2

Unmarried White Males
 Live with Parents       65.2  67.4  66.1  76.8  84.8  87.8  74.2  73.3
 Live away from Parents  34.8  32.6  33.9  23.2  15.3  12.2  25.8  26.7

Married Black Males
 Live with Parents        4.3   4.4   8.1  10.5  14.8  22.9  11.6   9.6
 Live away from Parents  95.7  95.6  91.9  89.5  85.2  77.1  88.4  90.4

Unmarried Black Males
 Live with Parents       51.2  55.6  59.2  63.9  73.0  80.8  68.7  71.1
 Live away from Parents  48.8  44.4  40.8  36.1  27.1  19.2  31.3  28.9

Married White Females
 Live with Parents        4.9   5.8   9.6  10.7  11.6  15.5   6.8   5.9
 Live away from Parents  95.1  94.2  90.4  89.3  88.4  84.5  93.2  94.1

Unmarried White Females
 Live with Parents       72.3  73.6  79.8  83.0  84.3  89.1  79.8  76.8
 Live away from Parents  27.7  26.4  20.2  17.0  15.7  10.9  20.2  23.2

Married Black Females
 Live with Parents        4.6   6.6   9.6  10.8  14.9  24.1  13.4  11.3
 Live away from Parents  95.4  93.4  90.4  89.2  85.1  75.9  86.6  88.7

Unmarried Black Females
 Live with Parents       61.0  65.6  68.4  73.6  74.1  82.9  72.2  73.1
 Live away from Parents  39.0  34.5  31.6  26.4  25.9  17.2  27.8  26.9

                         1980  1990

Married White Males
 Live with Parents        5.4   7.8
 Live away from Parents  94.6  92.2

Unmarried White Males
 Live with Parents       66.2  65.3
 Live away from Parents  33.9  34.7

Married Black Males
 Live with Parents       10.6  14.3
 Live away from Parents  89.4  85.7

Unmarried Black Males
 Live with Parents       66.2  64.7
 Live away from Parents  33.8  35.3

Married White Females
 Live with Parents        5.1   6.7
 Live away from Parents  94.9  93.3

Unmarried White Females
 Live with Parents       66.7  65.1
 Live away from Parents  33.3  35.0

Married Black Females
 Live with Parents       11.6  14.4
 Live away from Parents  88.4  85.6

Unmarried Black Females
 Live with Parents       64.1  61.0
 Live away from Parents  36.0  39.0

Source: Tabulated from Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)
data for each year.
Table B.10

Median Age at Leaving Home by Region, Sex, and Race

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males
 Northeast     22.9  22.7  22.3  24.0  25.8  24.8  21.5  21.4  22.1
 Midwest       22.2  22.6  22.5  23.6  24.4  23.3  20.7  20.5  21.0
 South         22.1  22.6  22.2  22.7  23.4  22.9  20.1  20.0  20.5
 West          19.8  21.7  20.8  22.3  22.9  22.2  19.6  20.0  20.2

Black Males
 Northeast     18.8  17.9  19.7  19.5  22.6  22.9  20.5  21.0  22.4
 Midwest       20.2  18.6  20.8  19.8  22.4  22.6  20.6  20.7  22.2
 South         19.4  20.3  20.2  20.7  22.2  23.6  21.1  20.8  21.7
 West          22.1   *    17.4  18.2  20.9  21.6  18.7  19.3  20.3

White Females
 Northeast     20.8  20.8  21.5  22.3  23.1  22.8  20.2  20.5  20.9
 Midwest       20.0  20.8  21.3  21.5  21.4  20.9  19.3  19.7  19.9
 South         20.2  20.8  20.5  20.7  20.7  20.5  19.2  19.4  19.6
 West          19.3  20.6  20.1  20.8  20.7  20.3  18.9  19.4  19.5

Black Females
 Northeast     18.2  16.6  18.8  18.8  20.1  21.3  19.3  20.0  21.3
 Midwest       18.1  19.2  19.4  19.3  20.1  20.7  19.1  19.9  20.9
 South         18.3  19.2  19.2  19.3  20.0  21.5  20.0  20.4  21.1
 West          17.4   *    17.5  19.1  19.0  19.6  18.4  19.4  20.5

               1990

White Males

 Northeast     23.0
 Midwest       21.8
 South         21.4
 West          20.9

Black Males

 Northeast     23.0
 Midwest       23.0
 South         22.0
 West          20.0

White Females

 Northeast     21.6
 Midwest       20.5
 South         20.3
 West          20.2

Black Females

 Northeast     22.5
 Midwest       21.8
 South         21.7
 West          20.8

(*)There are so few Blacks in the west in the 1900 IPUMS sample that the
computation is unreliable.

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.
Table B.11

Median Age at Leaving Home by Sex and Farm Residence, 1880-1990

                            1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960

White Males on Farms        22.7  24.2  23.8  24.8  25.3  25.3  22.9
Black Males on Farms        20.7  21.7  21.6  21.6  21.7  21.4  20.2
White Males not on Farms    19.6  21.8  21.3  21.7  23.0  25.5  23.6
Black Males not on Farms    18.9  20.2  19.9  19.8  20.5  22.4  21.7
White Females on Farms      21.9  21.8  21.5  22.9  24.1  23.1  20.3
Black Females on Farms      20.7  20.4  20.7  21.4  21.6  21.1  19.4
White Females not on Farms  19.2  18.6  19.5  19.7  21.8  22.6  20.5
Black Females not on Farms  18.0  18.3  18.6  18.8  19.8  20.9  19.5

                            1970  1980  1990

White Males on Farms        23.8  23.8  25.9
Black Males on Farms        21.4  21.4  22.8
White Males not on Farms    23.3  25.5  25.8
Black Males not on Farms    22.1  24.9  24.6
White Females on Farms      20.3  20.8  21.6
Black Females on Farms      19.7  19.9  20.6
White Females not on Farms  20.7  21.7  22.6
Black Females not on Farms  20.1  21.0  21.8

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.
Table B.12

Median Age of Leaving Home by Nativity, Sex, and Race

               1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980

White Males
 Foreign       19.7  19.8  19.2  21.0  24.3  21.7  19.9  20.3  20.2
 Native Born   22.6  23.1  23.2  23.7  24.3  23.5  20.5  20.4  20.9

Black Males
 Foreign       18.8  15.0  18.2  16.7  22.7  21.0  19.0  19.6  20.6
 Native Born   19.4  20.1  20.2  20.6  22.2  23.3  20.8  20.7  21.8

White Females
 Foreign       17.9  18.1  18.8  19.5  21.6  19.9  18.9  19.7  19.8
 Native Born   20.6  21.2  21.4  21.7  21.6  21.2  19.4  19.7  19.9

Black Females
 Foreign       18.7   1.4  18.6  17.9  20.0  19.6  18.6  19.2  20.5
 Native Born   18.3  19.0  19.1  19.3  20.0  21.3  19.7  20.2  21.1

               1990

White Males
 Foreign       20.3
 Native Born   21.8

Black Males
 Foreign       21.0
 Native Born   22.0

White Females
 Foreign       20.2
 Native Born   20.7

Black Females
 Foreign       21.1
 Native Born   21.8

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.
Table B.13

Median Age of Leaving Home by Migration Status, Sex, and Race

                         1880  1900  1910  1920  1940  1950  1960  1970

White Males
 Left Birth Region       20.0  20.2  19.5  21.0  22.4  21.1  18.8  19.2
 Stayed in Birth Region  22.9  23.3  23.6  24.1  24.7  23.8  21.0  20.9

Black Males
 Left Birth Region       18.6  14.1  18.1  18.2  21.3  20.7  19.0  19.3
 Stayed in Birth Region  19.4  20.3  20.3  20.8  22.4  23.9  21.4  21.3

White Females
 Left Birth Region       18.4  18.6  19.1  19.7  20.4  19.6  18.5  19.1
 Stayed in Birth Region  20.7  21.3  21.6  21.9  21.7  21.4  19.6  19.9

Black Females
 Left Birth Region       17.6  15.4  18.2  18.1  19.0  19.2  18.3  19.1
 Stayed in Birth Region  18.3  19.1  19.2  19.4  20.2  21.7  20.1  20.5

                         1980  1990

White Males
 Left Birth Region       19.6  20.1
 Stayed in Birth Region  21.3  22.2

Black Males
 Left Birth Region       19.8  20.0
 Stayed in Birth Region  22.3  23.0

White Females
 Left Birth Region       19.2  19.8
 Stayed in Birth Region  20.1  20.9

Black Females
 Left Birth Region       19.9  20.3
 Stayed in Birth Region  21.3  22.1

Source: Estimated from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
(IPUMS) data for each year.


APPENDIX C

Logistic Regressions

In addition to the median age at leaving home and the first and third quartile ages, we have undertaken logistic regressions that demonstrate the influence of each contextual variable on the age at leaving home.

For these regressions, our dependent variable indicates whether a given person lived away from both parents. Our independent variables represent a variety of factors that we believe may explain the variance in living with or away from parents, including age and farm residence, which we have already described by use of the estimated quartiles and medians. We provide separate regressions for the four sex and race groups as a recognition of the differences between these groups, and in order to avoid including a large number of interaction terms in each of the models. We assume that there would be interactions between sex and race and most of the independent variables in any combined model. These are the independent variables used in the analysis:

Age and Age Squared. Age is the dominant factor in determining whether a young person has left their parental home or not, in the sense that there is a steady increase by age in the number of persons who are no longer living in their parents' home, no matter what their other characteristics. We also include age squared because the relationship between age and home-leaving is not linear. These variables serve more as controls that define the overall process, and their odds ratios are nor necessarily easy to interpret.

Marital Status. While age is the most important factor overall in determining the time at which a young person leaves home, we will see that marital status is the single most important factor overall that determines whether he or she lives with parents or not. Simply put, married people are much less likely to live with their parents than the unmarried, although the strength of the effect varies through time and across sex and race groups.

Region of Residence. We divide the United States into four regions following standard U.S. census divisions The term Census division or Census Division is officially used for the Census divisions of Canada and the Census divisions of the United States.

    
: Northeast, Midwest, South, and West. We hypothesize that living conditions will be different in different regions and that these patterns will be expressed in different home leaving ages. We recognize that the regional differences may reflect different proportions urban, different racial and ethnic compositions, and different prevailing categories of socio-economic socio-economic adjsocioeconómico

socio-economic adjsocioéconomique 
 status, not all of which we can control for in this analysis.

Stayed in Region. This variable represents the residence status of the individual relative to her or his region of birth. We hypothesize that a person who has stayed in the region of birth is less likely to live away from his or her parents.

Foreign-born. We hypothesize that persons who were born in a foreign country (and therefore who have migrated to the U.S.) have a different status relative to living with their parents than do the native born. The analysis permits us to recognize difference in the social conditions of migration for the foreign born in different time periods. In some eras it is possible that migrants were more likely to live with their parents than others, and that they were more likely to live with their parents than the native born, holding age constant.

Farm Residence. This is the most consistently available variable in the census samples that gives an indication of residence and economic role. Following the results reported for the estimated quartiles, we hypothesize that farm residence is associated with later home-leaving, but we recognize that there is a complication complication /com·pli·ca·tion/ (kom?pli-ka´shun)
1. disease(s) concurrent with another disease.

2. occurrence of several diseases in the same patient.


com·pli·ca·tion
n.
 if a large proportion of home leaving involves a move from farm to non-farm residence.

Percent aged 15-19 in the state attending school. We hypothesize that high levels of involvement in public education in each state are associated with later ages at leaving home. One reason for this outcome is that formal education for this age group is conversely con·verse 1  
intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es
1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak.

2.
 related to participation in the labor force. Young people who are attending high school are more likely to be still living with their parents, partly because they are not under the financial pressures that apply to people in this age group who are in the labor force.

We report regression results in Tables C.1 through C.4. The tables present odds ratios rather than regression coefficients Regression coefficient

Term yielded by regression analysis that indicates the sensitivity of the dependent variable to a particular independent variable. See: Parameter.


regression coefficient 
 because of their ease of interpretation. For categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional.

A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding.

Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people.
 variables, the odds ratio represents the relative strength of the effect for the category measured relative to the reference category, so that in Table C.1 in 1880, for example, foreign-born white males were 1.41 times as likely as native-born white males to live away from their parents.

We begin by comparing a model that simply includes age and age squared with one that includes the full complement of independent variables. The results of these comparisons show two things. First, the full models have higher values for r-squared, which confirms that the addition of variables other than age helps explain the variation in home leaving age in a significant way. Second, the r-squared values for the models for white males and females generally increase from 1880 to 1970, before falling back in 1980 and 1990. The trend of r-squared values for the black male and female models is not so clear from 1880 to 1970, but has the same reduction in 1980 and 1990 that the models for whites have. This reflects the same reversal in patterns of convergence in home-leaving that we saw in the trend for inter-quartile ranges. In 1980 and 1990 there is clear evidence that the trend toward more similarities in the living experiences of young people had turned around.
Table C.1

Logistic Regression Results, Age at Leaving Home, 1880-1990: Odds Ratios
for White Males (*)

Model 1: Age and Age Squared only

                       1880    1900    1910     1920     1940     1950

Intercept             0.001   0.000   0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                   1.398   1.607   2.463    2.423    2.216    3.121
Age Squared           0.999   0.996   0.987    0.987    0.990    0.983

R squared             0.232   0.230   0.250    0.265    0.264    0.323

                        1960     1970     1980     1990

Intercept              0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                    5.824    6.710    4.897    3.664
Age Squared            0.969    0.967    0.974    0.979

R squared              0.357    0.384    0.357    0.307

Model 2: Full Model

                       1880    1900    1910     1920     1940     1950

Intercept             0.002   0.001   0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                   1.654   1.671   2.271    2.121    1.842    2.216
Age Squared           0.993   0.992   0.986    0.988    0.990    0.987
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)    1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Married             13.855  18.091  11.400   15.716   19.942   19.709
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)      1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Foreign-born         1.405   1.576   1.741    1.344    0.544    1.288
Since Birth
 Yes (ref)            1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth   0.485   0.526   0.376    0.369    0.368    0.337
Region
 Northeast            0.437   0.686   0.689    0.686    0.583    0.603
 Midwest              0.632   0.923   0.876    0.943    0.818    0.990
 South                0.556   0.970   0.738    1.238    1.036    1.001
 West (reference)     1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
Farm Residence
 Non-farm (ref)       1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Farm                 0.781   0.437   0.640    0.475    0.627    0.500
% in School 15-19     0.986   1.006   1.005    1.008    1.005    0.999

R squared             0.340   0.359   0.381    0.414    0.427    0.477

Number of cases      62,026  12,286  61,862  121,635  159,270  184,511

                        1960     1970     1980     1990

Intercept              0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                    5.043    6.600    5.235    4.034
Age Squared            0.969    0.964    0.970    0.975
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)     1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Married              22.661   23.408   13.363    9.618
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)       1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Foreign-born          0.667    0.521    0.648    0.833
Since Birth
 Yes (ref)             1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth    0.250    0.309    0.383    0.410
Region
 Northeast             0.597    0.627    0.447    0.509
 Midwest               0.847    0.904    0.722    0.731
 South                 0.951    0.937    0.764    0.732
 West (reference)      1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
Farm Residence
 Non-farm (ref)        1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Farm                  0.325    0.229    0.273    0.283
% in School 15-19      0.987    0.989    1.024    1.023

R squared              0.492    0.499    0.449    0.397

Number of cases      152,515  208,694  252,654  231,733

(*)Coefficients in boldface are significant at alpha=0.05 or less
Independent variables are described in Appendix C.
Table C.2

Logistic Regression Results, Age at Leaving Home, 1880-1990: Odds Ratios
for Black Males (*)

Model 1: Age and Age Squared only

                     1880     1900     1910    1920    1940    1950

Intercept           0.036      0.001  0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                 1.053      1.445  2.457   2.735   1.559   1.741
Age Squared         1.006      0.999  0.987   0.985   0.996   0.994

R squared           0.235      0.244  0.267   0.273   0.236   0.241

                      1960    1970    1980    1990

Intercept            0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                  2.464   2.734   2.497   2.124
Age Squared          0.986   0.984   0.986   0.988

R squared            0.276   0.288   0.266   0.175

Model 2: Full Model

                     1880     1900     1910    1920    1940    1950

Intercept           0.022  2,365.867  0.000   0.000   0.011   0.007
Age                 1.168      1.422  2.098   2.039   1.201   1.295
Age Squared         1.001      0.996  0.988   0.988   0.999   0.997
Marital Status
Not Married         1.000      1.000  1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Married             9.439     15.782  7.859   8.044   8.005   6.821
Place of Birth
U.S.-born (ref)     1.000      1.000  1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Foreign-born        0.925      0.705  0.771   2.495   0.633   0.948
Mig. Since Birth
Yes (ref)           1.000      1.000  1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Reg. Same as Birth  0.487      0.000  0.315   0.329   0.485   0.324
Region
Northeast           2.459      0.000  0.505   0.608   0.818   1.230
Midwest             1.468      0.000  0.321   0.604   0.765   1.168
South               2.278      0.000  0.651   0.951   1.491   1.881
West (ref)          1.000      1.000  1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm Residence
Non-farm (ref)      1.000      1.000  1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm                0.951      0.329  0.453   0.406   0.609   0.510
% in School 15-19   1.006      1.003  1.006   1.005   1.013   1.001

R squared           0.294      0.365  0.347   0.370   0.333   0.339

Number of cases     8,807      1,708  6,183  14,383  18,081  27,402

                      1960    1970    1980    1990

Intercept            0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                  1.930   2.397   2.749   2.212
Age Squared          0.989   0.985   0.982   0.986
Marital Status
Not Married          1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Married              7.229  10.354   6.768   5.719
Place of Birth
U.S.-born (ref)      1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Foreign-born         1.290   1.105   0.774   0.657
Mig. Since Birth
Yes (ref)            1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Reg. Same as Birth   0.379   0.425   0.383   0.419
Region
Northeast            0.757   0.586   0.791   0.701
Midwest              0.624   0.625   0.751   0.768
South                0.965   0.876   0.873   0.780
West (ref)           1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm Residence
Non-farm (ref)       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm                 0.422   0.465   0.395   0.569
% in School 15-19    0.994   1.023   0.968   0.982

R squared            0.365   0.385   0.337   0.246

Number of cases     18,294  26,150  37,469  31,191

(*)Coefficients in boldface are significant at alpha=0.05 or less
Independent variables are described in Appendix C.
Table C.3

Logistic Regression Results, Age at Leaving Home, 1880-1990: Odds Ratios
for White Females (*)

Model 1: Age and Age Squared only

                       1880    1900    1910     1920     1940     1950

Intercept             0.000   0.000   0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                   1.971   2.177   2.821    3.028    3.629    4.773
Age2                  0.991   0.989   0.983    0.982    0.978    0.973

R squared             0.211   0.218   0.231    0.247    0.266    0.310

                        1960     1970     1980     1990

Intercept              0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                    8.801    8.468    6.518    4.582
Age2                   0.961    0.962    0.968    0.975

R squared              0.377    0.399    0.375    0.345

Model 2: Full Model

                       1880    1900    1910     1920     1940     1950

Intercept             0.004   0.002   0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                   1.447   1.434   1.777    1.831    2.282    2.374
Age Squared           0.994   0.994   0.990    0.989    0.985    0.984
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)    1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Married             39.662  37.089  25.984   25.206   23.684   21.392
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)      1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Foreign-born         2.232   1.809   1.547    1.455    0.832    1.458
Mig. Since Birth
 Yes (ref)            1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth   0.681   0.554   0.560    0.575    0.590    0.527
Region
 Northeast            1.119   1.541   1.227    1.091    0.659    0.591
 Midwest              1.212   1.318   1.235    1.298    1.042    1.050
 South                1.124   1.267   1.015    1.429    1.070    1.073
 West (reference)     1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
Farm Residence
 No-farm (ref)        1.000   1.000   1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Farm                 0.625   0.476   0.697    0.656    0.592    0.742
% in School 15-19     0.998   1.011   1.016    1.019    1.000    1.005

R squared             0.440   0.451   0.454    0.467    0.469    0.477

Number of cases      60,752  12,343  57,506  122,258  161,003  190,989

                        1960     1970     1980     1990

Intercept              0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000
Age                    4.940    5.977    6.019    4.409
Age Squared            0.969    0.966    0.967    0.973
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)     1.000    1.000    1,000    1.000
 Married              22.075   19.856   14.824   10.299
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)       1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Foreign-born          1.062    0.647    0.575    0.646
Mig. Since Birth
 Yes (ref)             1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth    0.484    0.519    0.515    0.517
Region
 Northeast             0.743    0.674    0.459    0.590
 Midwest               1.146    1.027    0.759    0.824
 South                 1.132    0.984    0.817    0.801
 West (reference)      1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
Farm Residence
 No-farm (ref)         1.000    1.000    1.000    1.000
 Farm                  0.469    0.299    0.315    0.297
% in School 15-19      1.025    1.017    1.042    1.031

R squared              0.504    0.510    0.470    0.429

Number of cases      154,992  213,530  249,252  225,118

(*)Coefficients in boldface are significant at alpha = 0.05 or less
Independent variables are described in Appendix C.
Table C.4

Logistic Regression Results, Age at Leaving Home, 1880-1990: Odds Ratios
for Black Females (*)

Model 1: Age and Age Squared only

                       1880        1900    1910    1920    1940    1950

Intercept             0.000       0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                   2.795       2.202   3.195   3.414   2.772   2.664
Age2                  0.983       0.988   0.980   0.979   0.983   0.984

R squared             0.222       0.211   0.220   0.242   0.216   0.215

                       1960    1970    1980    1990

Intercept             0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                   3.631   3.743   3.045   2.460
Age2                  0.978   0.978   0.983   0.986

R squared             0.261   0.308   0.295   0.222

Model 2: Full Model

                       1880        1900    1910    1920    1940    1950

Intercept             0.003  17,602.567   0.001   0.000   0.001   0.001
Age                   1.561       1.264   1.806   1.793   1.588   1.514
Age Squared           0.993       0.998   0.989   0.990   0.992   0.993
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)    1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Married             19.726      20.562  13.436  13.675  10.052   8.695
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)      1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Foreign-born         0.722     999.000   0.665   1.385   0.648   1.041
Mig. Since Birth
 Yes (ref)            1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth   0.712       0.332   0.567   0.430   0.450   0.373
Region
 Northeast            1.080       0.000   1.214   1.800   0.925   1.120
 Midwest              0.962       0.000   0.679   1.099   0.727   1.010
 South                1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 West (reference)     1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm Residence
 Non-farm (ref)       1.000       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Farm                 0.584       0.426   0.499   0.573   0.648   0.736
% in School 15-19     1.002       0.994   1.006   1.008   1.008   1.003

R squared             0.373       0.398   0.368   0.393   0.353   0.341

Number of cases       9,438       1,790   6,830  16,076  20,309  31,227

                       1960    1970    1980    1990

Intercept             0.000   0.000   0.000   0.000
Age                   2.215   2.611   2.922   2.505
Age Squared           0.986   0.983   0.982   0.984
Marital Status
 Not Married (ref)    1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Married              8.413   9.553   5.597   4.505
Place of Birth
 U.S.-born (ref)      1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Foreign-born         1.140   1.135   0.697   0.740
Mig. Since Birth
 Yes (ref)            1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Reg. Same as Birth   0.447   0.536   0.518   0.550
Region
 Northeast            1.144   0.906   0.942   0.811
 Midwest              1.000   0.894   1.018   0.997
 South                1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 West (reference)     1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
Farm Residence
 Non-farm (ref)       1.000   1.000   1.000   1.000
 Farm                 0.522   0.550   0.332   0.476
% in School 15-19     1.004   1.035   0.996   0.982

R squared             0.370   0.410   0.352   0.273

Number of cases      20,384  28,795  40,992  34,020

(*)Coefficients in boldface are significant at alpha=0.05 or less
Independent variables are described in Appendix C.
COPYRIGHT 2002 Journal of Social History
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Author:Pullum, Thomas W.
Publication:Journal of Social History
Article Type:Statistical Data Included
Geographic Code:00WOR
Date:Mar 22, 2002
Words:16542
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