They won't teach me: the voices of gifted African American inner-city students. (When who I am impacts how I am represented: addressing minority student issues in different contexts).

   No challenge has been more daunting than that of improving the academic
   achievement of African American students. Burdened with a history that
   includes the denial of education, separate and unequal education, and
   relegation to unsafe, substandard inner-city schools, the quest of quality
   education remains an elusive dream for the African American community.
   (Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. ix).

Forty-six years after the Supreme Court overturned legislation which supported "separate but equal" education and the eventual desegregation of public schools, the quest for equity in education still remains, and the success of the desegregation and integration of schools is still in question (Harris & Russo, 1994). Research conducted throughout the course of desegregation efforts to determine the effects of school desegregation on minority and White students has, unfortunately, failed to produce the expected increases in minority student achievement (Crain & Mahard, 1982; Crain & Wells, 1997 Lanke, 1979; Sheehan, 1979; St. John, 1978). With the onset of desegregation efforts and the change in environment for talented African American youth, it is appropriate to raise the question: How have the efforts to desegregate and integrate schools affected gifted African American students?

As suggested by the supporters of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), segregated African American schools were unable to provide a quality education due to lower quality facilities and fewer curricular choices (Harris & Russo, 1994). It is fair to assume that the deleterious effects of these conditions were felt deeply by gifted African American students. With the implementation of desegregation efforts such as busing, voluntary desegregation, and magnet schools, gifted African American students were expected to reap the greatest benefit (Ford, 1996). However, the identification and retention of African American students in gifted education programs in predominantly White schools declined during the implementation of desegregation programs. According to Chinn and Hughes (1987), in 1978, African American students represented 15.7% of the nation's public school student population and 10.3% of the students participating in gifted education programs. In 1992, while African American students represented 21.1% of the nation's public school student population, African American students represented 12% of the students in gifted education (Ford & Harris, 1999).

This article describes and discusses a study that was designed to develop a greater understanding of the experiences of gifted African American elementary students who were bused to desegregate a predominantly White middle-class school, and then returned to their predominantly African American neighborhood school after the dismantling of desegregation. While the intent of this research was to examine the experiences resulting from desegregation and resegregation of gifted African American students, the students and teachers in this study shared important information regarding the practices of teachers and their implications for gifted African American students.

Literature Review

School Desegregation and Gifted African American Students

The social scientists who testified in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) believed that segregation had a negative impact on the achievement of African American students due to inferior school facilities and low per pupil expenditures, lowered self-esteem due to the status given to African Americans in White society, and reduced motivation to learn among African American students (Stephan & Rosenfield, 1980). Most research on desegregation has focused on the achievement of African American students and the impact of racial integration on African American self-esteem and self-concept. For example, Katz (1969) and St. John (1978) found that desegregation seemed to be more beneficial to those students who possessed high ego strength, self-confidence, and high ability or achievement levels and that a biracial classroom is socially facilitating to high achievers. Based on these findings, gifted African American students in elementary school should experience more success and benefit from desegregated school programs than nongifted elementary school students. After reviewing the results of 80 studies on the effects of desegregation since 1954, Stephan and Rosenfield found no empirical data to support any effect on prejudice, self-esteem, or student achievement. What has been established is that African American student achievement and self-esteem did not increase as a result of desegregation, or if it did increase, it was clearly not at the level of White children (St. John).

A review of literature on school desegregation and gifted students revealed that there has not been any research into the effects of desegregation on gifted students. Additionally, a search for literature on school desegregation and gifted African American students produced no results. This void in the literature indicates there has been no research looking at the effects of desegregation on gifted African American students.

Cultural Competency and Desegregated Schools

Sullivan (1979) stated that, for teachers to provide an effective education for culturally diverse students, it is necessary for them to become culturally competent. Being culturally competent necessitates that teachers demonstrate knowledge of the history of minority populations, societal racism, language, affirmation of minority students, multicultural education, and the role of community and family. Boykin (1994b) suggests that educators who understand the cultural beliefs, values, norms, and traditions of their students are able to recognize and affirm diverse cultural styles of learning, which in rum, impacts their teaching and communication with students and their families.

Ford (1996) defines culturally competent educators as teachers who possess self-awareness and self-understanding, cultural awareness and understanding, social responsiveness and responsibility, and use appropriate teaching techniques and strategies. These teachers are aware of themselves as cultural beings, knowledgeable about their own cultural heritage, as well as the influences of their culture and/or the dominant culture on teaching. They are also comfortable with the differences between themselves and their students. Once aware of their own negative reactions toward students of other cultures, culturally competent teachers strive to become nonjudgmental. Armed with an understanding of how cultural differences and conflicts influence and affect their teaching and their students' learning, they are able to provide their students with an inclusive curriculum that addresses issues of inequality and confronts injustices that are often present within their desegregated classrooms and schools (Ford & Harris, 1999).

Culturally competent teachers develop meaningful relationships with their students that extend beyond the classroom, reaching out to include the students' families in the education process. While many of their students' communities may be beyond those of the neighborhood school, they are involved in their students' communities, often as advocates for students. Teachers who are culturally competent demonstrate social responsiveness and responsibility by increasing racial harmony within their classrooms and decreasing the negative beliefs and attitudes of White students toward minority students, which are often unveiled in desegregated classrooms. Their demand of respect for individual differences and intolerance of discriminatory behavior facilitates the development of cultural awareness in their students and encourages them to become proactive.

Culturally competent teachers are aware of the institutional barriers that prevent minority students from obtaining an equal education. They have an understanding of the traditional practices of education and how they may conflict with the values of minority students. Regardless of the composition of their classrooms, they provide a multicultural curriculum that is inclusive of all cultures and deliver it utilizing culturally congruent and culturally relevant teaching methods. Teachers are willing to engage with students so that they are able to help them in their understanding of content.

Culturally Relevant Teaching Methods in Desegregated Schools

According to Ladson-Billings (1994), culturally relevant teaching refers to methods of teaching that empower students to grow intellectually, socially, and emotionally by using cultural referents in teaching knowledge and skills. Winfield (1986) states that teachers tend to teach students using an assimilationist style that operates without regard to the cultural characteristics and cultural assets of the student. Culturally relevant teaching is in direct opposition to assimilationist teaching (Ladson-Billings). Ladson-Billings suggests that teachers who use culturally relevant teaching methods can be characterized by the ways they view themselves and others, social relations, and knowledge.

Culturally relevant teachers see themselves as part of the community and have a desire to give something back to that community. They attempt to help students make a connection between their own community and the world. Culturally relevant teachers develop relationships with their students that go beyond typical teacher-student interactions and demonstrate a connectedness with students. Teachers create a community of learners within the classroom, building a sense of interdependency among students. They use culturally relevant teaching practices and believe that all students can learn and succeed.

Cultural Assets and Desegregated Schools

Boykin (1994a) investigated the behavior of African American students and identified nine cultural styles that he believes are learned in the home and manifest themselves in the learning preferences of African American children in the classroom. These cultural styles or cultural assets are spirituality, harmony, movement, verve, oral tradition, expressive individualism, affect, communalism, and social time perspective. Spirituality is the belief in inner strength and that nonmaterial, religious forces influence people's everyday lives so that events in life occur for a reason. Harmony is the belief that ones' fate is interrelated with other elements of nature's order and that humankind and nature are harmonically conjoined. Movement is a preference for kinesthetic activities that allow for movement and experiential learning while verve is an inclination for relatively high levels of stimulation. Affect refers to an emphasis on emotions and feelings with a sensitivity to emotional cues and a tendency toward emotional response. Oral tradition is a preference for oral modes of communication such as metaphors, analogies, graphic forms of language, and code switching. Expressive individualism is the need for developing a distinctive personality. The need for social connectedness, interdependence, communal learning, affiliation, and social acceptance is known as communalism. An orientation to time where the event is seen as more important than the time is referred to as a social time perspective.

In predominantly White schools where African American students are from predominantly African American neighborhoods, the cultural assets of African American students coupled with the characteristics of gifted students create additional educational challenges for teachers to understand their needs (Ford, Baytops, & Harmon, 1998). Colangelo and Axum (1979) studied inner-city and economically disadvantaged gifted students and found that culturally different gifted students do have different learning styles from White gifted students. African American gifted students enjoyed and sought social relationships with their peers and enjoyed participating in cooperative learning. Ford (1996) suggested that a cultural clash often occurs between the expectations of teachers and the needs of gifted African American students. In a traditional classroom, the behavioral expectations for students include conformity, passivity, quietness, and competition, and may be inappropriate expectations for culturally diverse students.

The literature reviewed for this study includes research on school desegregation and gifted African American students, the need for teachers to become culturally competent, culturally congruent teaching methods, and the cultural assets of African American students.

Methodology

This study was conducted in a moderate size metropolitan area in the midwestern United States. Six gifted African American fourth and fifth graders from Tacoma Elementary School, a predominantly African American, inner-city school were paired with Rocky Creek Elementary School, a predominantly White school in another area of the city. Families that attended Tacoma ranged from middle to lower socioeconomic status with 80% of the families qualifying for the USDA school lunch program. Families from Rocky Creek ranged from middle to upper socioeconomic status with less than 10% qualifying for the USDA school lunch program. In the early 1970s, students from Tacoma were bused to Rocky Creek in an attempt to desegregate schools. Twenty years later, in the mid-1990s, court-ordered busing was repealed and dismantled, requiring students from Tacoma and Rocky Creek to return to their home schools. These schools are now considered to be resegregated as neighborhood patterns continue to be segregated.

Qualitative research methods were selected for this study to generate data rich in detail and embedded in context (Patton, 1990). Multiple sources, including interactive fieldwork, classroom observation, group discussions, student interviews, and teacher interviews, were used for data collection. Purposeful sampling was used to identify student participants (Creswell, 1998). They were selected from among those gifted students who were bused during the first, second, or third grades before returning to their neighborhood school. Two 4th-graders, age 10, one male and one female, and four 5th-graders, age 11, one female and three males, participated in the study.

In addition to the students, 3 out of the 16 teachers from both schools, who were identified as effective teachers by all six students, were selected for this study. All three teachers, two African Americans and one European American, taught at Tacoma and had known the students for 3 years.

Research Questions

Students first were asked about their experiences traveling to and from both schools. Next, questions concerning their relationships with their classmates were asked, followed by questions about their classroom environment and their relationships with teachers at both elementary schools. The next set of questions focused on the resources available at each school. Students were asked to compare their experiences at both elementary schools. They were also asked if, given a choice, which of the schools they would attend. Finally, students were asked what they felt they learned from their experiences with desegregation and resegregation. Before leaving the interview, each student was asked where they planned to attend school the following year, because each of the fifth grade students was accepted into one or more magnet programs in desegregated schools designed for high achieving and gifted students. Student interviews were video- and audiotaped to capture both verbal and nonverbal language.

Teachers were interviewed about their philosophy of education, instructional methods, curriculum, and classroom management techniques. In addition to interviews, weekly observations were made of these teachers in their classroom for the entire school year. Teachers' interviews were audiotaped.

Data Analysis

Audiotapes were transcribed verbatim and transcripts were coded with an interpretational search for themes, using the grounded approach and open coding techniques (Patton, 1990). As patterns or themes were identified, recoding was performed using axial coding. Contextualizing strategies were used by sorting data into categories by relationships that connected statements, events, themes, and by developing an indigenous typology. Patton suggests elucidating key phrases or terms that are used by participants by creating an indigenous typology, classification systems made up of categories that are divided by aspects of the participants' world. Anthropologists, in their study of cultures, have emphasized the importance of preserving and reporting the indigenous categories of people studied. Patton explains that "... indigenous typologies are clues to the evaluation of the phenomena to which the labels refer. [The labels] are important to the people in the setting, and to fully understand the setting, it is necessary to understand those terms and their implications" (p. 394). Concept maps were constructed from the data to identify patterns, comparisons, trends, and paradoxes. Analysis was done first by hand, then with HyperRESEARCH, a qualitative computer software, and the results were compared (Creswell, 1998). Validation and reliability was established through triangulation that compared the student perspectives, teacher perspectives, and observer perspectives of behaviors and constructs with theory which supported the credibility, dependability, and confirmability of the study (Patton).

Results

Student Responses Gifted African American fourth and fifth graders who were bused to desegregate Rocky Creek and then returned to their home school, Tacoma, were interviewed about their experiences at Rocky Creek and Tacoma. Interview questions focused on the trip to school, classroom environment, classmates, and school resources. Students were also asked to compare the two school experiences. The subjects' names have been changed.

Cross-Cultural Interactions

Traveling to School. Students reported feelings of anger around being required to attend a school that was not in their neighborhood. All of the students were angered by the name calling and harassment they received from White students on the bus ride to and from school each day. There was very little intervention by the bus drivers, teachers, or principal concerning the behavior on the bus. Most of the students felt the bus was an unsafe environment that created an atmosphere of anxiety and stress for them. One student felt that it was very stressful riding the bus to school each morning. He explained that, "... it felt kind of weird because every day you either have to get on the bus and fight or just let them beat up on you!"

Peers. Students appeared to be confused initially by the treatment they received from their White classmates at Rocky Creek but learned quickly that they were not welcomed by some of the Rocky Creek students. Each of the students shared how they were greeted during the first week of school by White students from Rocky Creek who told them that they did not like them, did not want them attending their school, and suggested that they return to their own neighborhood. Jamaal was only one of five African American students in his first grade class and one of four in his second grade class. When asked how he felt about being one of a few African Americans, he replied with a sigh,

   Well, at first I felt good about the difference. But then I realized that
   people are afraid of what they don't know and so being different isn't
   always the greatest. So, this way you're stuck thinking that it is pretty
   nice not being the same as another person. Yet, the next thing you know,
   someone is calling you names like [pause] "you dirty black roach" and stuff
   like that! (Jamaal, 5th grader)

All but two students reported being called derogatory names. They were teased, taunted, and intimidated by some of the White students at Rocky Creek. One student suggested that only those African American students who were dark-skinned were the target of prejudicial treatment. All of the students witnessed White students engaging in the name calling and harassment of African American students.

Charles and Jamaal shared how hurt they felt when their White classmates would reject their attempts to become friends. What was even more painful was the realization that some of their White friends would not acknowledge or socialize with them outside of the classroom.

The students chose friends among the minority students who attended Rocky Creek. Some students preferred to remain among their African American friends because they could communicate with them, unlike the White students. They believed that they did not have very much in common with the White students at Rocky Creek. They found communication with them tedious. Due to cultural differences, they felt uncomfortable around White students and more comfortable among other minority students. All of the students characterized their experience with White students at Rocky Creek as very painful because they were forced to deal with prejudice on a daily basis.

Each student who was interviewed stated that it felt good being part of the majority. They felt that they had so much more in common with their classmates at Tacoma. One thing that was mentioned by all of the students was that they were able to communicate with their classmates, something that was often difficult at Rocky Creek, as there were differences in communication styles and in the language among African American and White students.

All of the students were emphatic in stating that what they enjoyed the most about attending Tacoma was that none of their classmates were calling them derogatory names or harassing them.

Strengthened Ability to Cope with Injustices. Participants demonstrated resiliency in dealing with the discriminatory and prejudicial behavior of their classmates and teachers. They told of how during recess, African American students would seek each other out on the playground and talk about what to do about the way they were treated. According to Charday, a fourth grader, all the students stayed in groups that were racially segregated with White students keeping to themselves and African American and Hispanic students socializing with each other. Charday's voice increased with intensity as she talked about the students from Rocky Creek.

   They would hang out with mostly their own color and talk about the kids of
   our race. And, it was bad because every time we would go somewhere, they
   would go another place and talk about us and say it out loud. They would
   call us niggers and black people and racial things. They would come up to
   us and say it in our faces and other things like that!

Charday looked down at her lap as she remembered that it did not feel very good being treated this way "because of what Dr. Martin Luther King said." She would usually try to ignore what the White students said or walk away from them.

In second grade Charday had three other African American classmates including Jamaal and Charles. Some of the students from Rocky Creek continued to call her and other African Americans derogatory names. Charday leaned forward in her chair, balled up her fists and said,

   In second grade, I kind of got mad. And, I was doing things myself because
   the teachers wouldn't do anything about it. So, I started doing things
   myself. And, what I mean by doing things myself is [that] I would face the
   problem and things like that.

At no time during their experiences, at either elementary school, did they give up believing that they possessed exceptional abilities and that they could succeed. One student commented:

   I am really smart. And, like I am proud of that. I feel good because I want
   to represent the Black people really good. Like, that is why I am trying to
   try for excellence [and] be a really smart person to show all White people
   that you all are not just the smart ones. We can be smart, too. We can be
   really successful, too! (Charles, 5th grader)

Ineffective Teachers

As students discussed their classroom environment and relationships with teachers, they identified a total of 16 teachers as either effective or ineffective teachers. Six teachers, from both schools, were identified as effective while 10 teachers, also from both schools, were considered to be ineffective. A recurring statement from the each of the students regarding ineffective teachers was that "they won't teach us." When asked to define what they meant by this statement, each student explained how they believed these teachers lacked an understanding and appreciation of African American culture and behavior resulting in low academic expectations. Students insisted that these teachers did not believe that they were capable of learning or of being gifted and talented. Consequently, these students believed that they were placed in lower ability groups and given less challenging work compared to White students in their classroom.

   How are we supposed to get it [do well]! Since all the teachers, when we
   would do our work ... [pause, eyes swelled with tears] They expected you to
   never get anything right or to be the best. It was like they purposely did
   not want us to succeed. They didn't give us any help. (Jamaal, 5th grader)

   They always put Black kids in groups where they are not suppose to be.
   (Charday, 5th grade)

Students also claimed that some of these teachers "could have taught [them] but chose not to teach [them]." When asked to explain what they meant, students disclosed their belief that these teachers lacked the ability to teach them as they were unable to present information in ways they could understand.

   We did not understand what those teachers meant and would have to try to
   guess at the meaning. (Charday, 5th grader)

   Things they [teachers] told us about African Americans did not always have
   accurate information. This is just another example of how the teachers
   didn't care about us. (Jamaal, 5th grader)

Ineffective teachers were identified across all races and at both schools, although students identified most of them at the school to which they were bused. Teachers who were considered to be ineffective were also perceived as uncaring, disrespectful, and prejudiced. Each of the students witnessed what they considered to be unfair treatment, with teachers giving preferential treatment toward White students.

   The instructions she [the teacher] gave to White students seemed more
   better than the instructions she gave to minority students. (Lamont, 4th
   grader)

   She [the teacher] would give different instructions, work sheets, and
   homework to White students. (Charday, 5th grader)

   He [the teacher] would encourage the other kids. He would give them [White
   students] ideas about what to do, but he would just let us get in trouble.
   (Charles, 5th grader)

Table 1 presents some of the characteristics and behaviors of ineffective teachers identified by these students.

Further discussion with students revealed that most of the teachers considered to be ineffective did not explain concepts in a way students could understand, did not relate content or concepts to students in a meaningful way, relied on auditory teaching methods, and gave instructions using language that was difficult to understand. Some of the students complained about the expectations of their teachers to be quiet most of the time and to sit still at their desks. One student explained how it was necessary to move around a little bit while he was doing his work. Students reported that after they completed their work it was very difficult to be still and they needed to move around so as not to become bored. Some of the students complained that it was too quiet in their classrooms and they could not understand why they could not talk quietly to their friends if they all had completed their work. All of the students interpreted the refusal of their teachers to accommodate their needs as disrespect.

Effective Teachers

According to all of the students interviewed, effective teachers were present at both schools and included all races. Table 2 lists what students identified as the characteristics of effective teachers.

The students described effective teachers as those who were able to teach them in ways they could learn. They were considered to be respectful and caring teachers who introduced new concepts in ways they could understand, explaining the meaning of words.

   She [the teacher] was educating us. She just taught us, and if you didn't
   understand it she would teach you to the point that you did. (Charles, 5th
   grader)

   If students didn't understand something, she [the teacher] would help them
   individually or in small groups until they did understand. Instead of just
   telling the class what to do, she wrote it on the board. (Jamaal, 5th
   grader)

   She would use interesting problems-real problems, that all of us could
   understand. (Steven, 5th grader)

The effective teachers employed a variety of teaching styles, differentiation, and used multicultural materials.

   She'd put you where you belonged. She'd make sure you were in the math
   group you belonged to and put you in higher groups that she knows that you
   can do. (Charles, 5th grader)

   She would give me independent projects to do such as reading selected books
   and discussing them with her. (Charday, 5th grader)

   I could read about people like myself ... and learned about different
   people of color in every subject. (Keesha, 4th grader)

Resources

Every student interviewed agreed that the resources at Tacoma were not as abundant as the resources at Rocky Creek. Tacoma's building was smaller and older. Students commented that the building was not as clean as Rocky Creek's building. The library was small and was stocked with many outdated books.

Jamaal was the only student who felt that Tacoma's resources were just as good as Rocky Creek's resources.

   ... The classrooms are pretty small, but, it's not what you see on the
   outside. Its what's on the inside. Like the classrooms may be small but
   good things come in small packages. Like you can have good friends in small
   classrooms ...

Jamaal acknowledged that Rocky Creek's resources were superior to the resources at Tacoma but felt that the superior resources at Rocky Creek could not compare to what he found at Tacoma. Tacoma had students and teachers who cared, accepted, and supported minority students. Tacoma provided a safe environment where all students could learn.

In this study, the students perceived Rocky Creek as a rich school. The school was large, very clean, and well kept. Books, materials, and computers were considered to be much better than those at Tacoma. Classrooms were able to participate in many field trips.

Lessons Learned

Each of the students in the study felt that, while their experience with desegregation was painful and even traumatic, they gained important knowledge concerning interactions with White people which they might not have learned otherwise. Responding to the question of how these experiences affected him, Jamaal closed his eyes for a moment, looked up and said, "I realized that [White] people are afraid of what they don't know. Now I know to not expect all these [White] people to know things." One important lesson Lamont learned from his experience with busing and returning to his neighborhood was, "... that all White people are not the same. That everything's not all bad." Students agreed that even though they believed that many White people were prejudiced and would treat them unfairly, they also believed that some White people were not prejudiced and would treat them with respect and show genuine concern for them.

Program Choice

Even though all of the fifth grade students qualified for highly academic magnet programs designed for high achieving and gifted students, all of them refused to attend these programs. When asked to discuss their reasons for not participating, they admitted that, although the magnet programs provided the academic challenge they were seeking, they were concerned about the kind of teachers, the lack of an inclusive curriculum, and teaching methods they believed a predominantly White education program provided.

   They gave me a tour [of the magnet program] and I went and everybody was
   really nice there. Well, it's like a pleasant environment. But, I just
   don't feel comfortable around a lot of White people. (Charles, 5th grader)

   They [teachers] ... claim that it was topnotch teaching and everything like
   that. For the White kids, of course, but not for us. (Jamaal, 5th grader)

Teacher Responses

Three teachers from Tacoma Elementary School were interviewed about their experiences with the resegregation of students from Rocky Creek Elementary School. They were also asked to describe their education philosophies, classroom management strategies, and classroom curriculum. Observations of teachers and their interactions with students were made throughout the course of one full school year.

Education Philosophy

All three teachers were motivated to teach inner-city minority populations because of their concerns about the failure of education in serving underprivileged students and believed education was one of the urgent needs within the African American community.

   I was looking into the future. How are [they] going to be when they
   graduate from high school and when they interview for college? I was
   looking at the long term, and I wanted them to have some kind of basis or
   beginning. (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th grade)

   You know, because I think just coming from where we came from, what we had
   to go through in school ... I think all of us here--we're pretty tough on
   them. Yeah, because we know how hard it is out here. We want them to know
   that your education is important. (Mrs. Cunningham, 4th and 5th grade)

   I think it's hard for two communities, totally opposite, [and] not
   necessarily different just in terms of Black and White. Some of the White
   students appeared to be brighter because they did have more experiences
   that they brought. You know when you've been to the library, when you've
   been read a lot of books, it does a lot. (Miss Piper, 4th and 5th grade)

The effective teachers created classroom environments that did not tolerate any form of prejudice. "[Mrs. Cunningham's] classroom was peaceful. She said that she would send any students that she found calling [racially derogatory] names to the office" (Lamont, 4th grader). They looked upon the cultural differences of these gifted African American students as cultural assets instead of cultural Deficits.

   Once you see past that shell that they had on the outside, and you get to
   the core, they're bright. They were intelligent kids. I wanted to see them
   with someone who would stay on them and expect that from them. Demand it
   from them. That's what they needed. That was the biggest part of their
   problem. (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th grade)

Teachers attempted to teach students more positive social skills and provided a safe, disciplined classroom environment with high expectations for behavior and academic performance.

   My philosophy is that school is not just coming and getting academics but,
   it is also etiquette, manners, affective learning. I mean it all ties into
   their learning. I thought to myself I could give them all of the tools, all
   the academics that they needed but if they don't have those essential
   skills that they need, it is not going to do them any good. And, they need
   to learn it now. (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th grade) She [(Miss Oliver, 3rd
   and 4th grade)] just really kept me where I was disciplined. If I did
   something wrong, she would let me know that I did something wrong and that
   I should not do whatever I did the next time. (Charles, 5th grader)

   She wants us to do our best. She knows if we've done our best 'cause she
   knows our quality work and how we work and stuff. If we don't do our best,
   she will have us come in at lunch and do it again because she knows that we
   can do better than that. (Steven, 5th grader)

Curriculum and Instruction

The education philosophies of the teachers as well as their instructional methods provided an affective, affirming, multicultural curriculum utilizing differentiation and critical thinking skills.

   Multiculturalism is a part of every lesson I teach. It doesn't matter what
   the subject is, I always bring out what contributions African Americans,
   Hispanics, or whatever have made towards it. (Mrs. Cunningham, 4th and 5th
   grade)

   I don't believe in just learning about Black history in February. We need
   to learn about the contributions of Blacks and everybody else throughout
   the year. (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th grade)

   I would work with students in small groups or individually. I would sit
   them at the round table or we would get on the floor and I would work with
   them until they got it. I would let them go up to the board and work out
   problems so they could see that they could do it. With the gifted students,
   I gave more advanced work. Some of them had independent studies or I
   allowed them to move ahead into the next lesson. (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th
   grade)

Members from their community were invited into the school as role models and mentors, and students were encouraged and provided with opportunities to participate in their community.

   I gave them a lot of role models. I tried to bring in as many young African
   American professional people as possible because I think that it's
   important for them to see that someone who is just like them is successful.
   (Miss Oliver, 3rd and 4th grade)

In addition, observations and interviews with identified effective teachers indicated the use of direct instruction, flexible ability grouping, cooperative learning, differentiation of curriculum, instruction, and evaluation, and authentic problem solving. All of the teachers provided the students with a multicultural curriculum with multicultural materials.

One of the most influential activities the teachers provided for their students was discussing their concerns. All of the teachers would take time to discuss current events with the students, encouraging them to share their feelings. Often the topics dealt with prejudice and racism and Miss Oliver, Miss Piper, and Mrs. Cunningham would take these opportunities to prepare their students for the realities of being an African American in a predominantly White society.

Program Choice

All three of the interviewed teachers believed that an increase in the students' self-esteem and academic performance had occurred. Students had returned to their neighborhood school with below-grade level achievement scores but were able to raise their scores significantly enough to qualify for academic magnet programs. Each of the teachers were saddened but not surprised about the students' decisions not to attend any of the magnet programs in the district. They admitted that they knew that these students would not want to go through another experience like the one they had with busing.

Discussion and Implications

The effective teachers in this study were observed expending considerable time developing activities and lessons in such a way as to present knowledge from multiple perspectives using a multicultural curriculum aligned with critical thinking skills. Although each of the teachers expressed the belief that all students could learn, they were cognizant of individual differences among students and the need for accommodation and differentiation.

The identification of characteristics of ineffective teachers and their instructional methods supports Ford's (1996) research on underachieving gifted African American students that identified low teacher expectations, a hostile classroom environment, feelings of alienation from teachers and classmates, lack of racial diversity among students, and lack of multicultural curriculum as factors within the school that impact underachievement in gifted African American students.

The results of this study also support the work of Ford (1996), Ford and Harris (1999), Frasier (1995), and Piirto (1999), who suggest that effective strategies for reversing underachievement in gifted African American students include high expectations of students, accommodation of learning styles, cooperative learning, positive reinforcement and praise, student-centered classrooms, affective curricula, multicultural curricula, mentors and role models, and family involvement within the school.

Finally, this study supports Ford and Harris' (1999) recommendation of a multicultural gifted curriculum for gifted African American students. A multicultural gifted curriculum provides the challenge and the affirmation that gifted African American students need, integrating the goals and philosophies of both multicultural education and gifted education and addressing issues of diversity.

Examining the stories of these gifted African American students in a qualitative fashion provides a look at the complexity involved in the process of desegregation, integration, and resegregation. The information from this study is valuable in evaluating current desegregation plans and in the development of new policies to address the inequality of educational opportunities between minority and White students. In informal discussions with the teachers, staff, and administrators at Tacoma Elementary School, including those teachers interviewed in this study, it was shared that, prior to the desegregation of schools and the dismantling of busing, no training or support on the process of desegregation and integration of diverse populations of students was provided for principals, teachers, staff, or students. This study demonstrates that attention to the process of discrimination and its impact on African American students is vital in the development of understanding and tolerance for diverse populations.

One of the most important implications of this study is that teachers and schools have the power to transform the lives of their students. Teachers and schools can create classroom and school environments, in predominantly African American or White schools, that support their students. All of the teachers identified as effective teachers in this study possessed cultural competence and provided a multicultural curriculum utilizing culturally relevant teaching methods. The identification of these characteristics in effective teachers as well as the characteristics of ineffective teachers and their instructional methods offer an explanation of why African American students, as a whole, are not achieving at high levels.

The positive impact of the teachers' involvement within the community was very apparent. While community involvement has proven to be helpful in the education of the student, this study suggests additional avenues for incorporating the community and its members into the education process.

Recommendations and Conclusion

Cultural Competency in Teachers

Teachers in both desegregated and segregated schools need to learn how to support the development of resiliency in their students through caring relationships with their students and by demonstrating positive beliefs about students, high expectations, and trust. More attention needs to be given to the impact of cultural competence, culturally relevant teaching, and multicultural education on the achievement of African American and other minority students. When dealing with African American students, teachers must participate in the process of becoming culturally competent, a process including significant contact with diverse groups of students and that can best occur in teacher education programs.

Multicultural Education

All teachers need to undergo training in multicultural education. In addition to providing an inclusive multicultural curriculum, multicultural education demands that teachers adopt strategies that will eliminate bias in the classroom. Classrooms need to develop a sense of community where students are able to participate in cooperative learning. Teachers in desegregated and segregated schools need to learn about intergroup similarities and differences through vicarious experiences and intergroup contacts. They must be prepared to discuss issues about prejudice and racism with their students (Ford, 1996; Ford & Harris, 1999; Frasier, 1995; Patton & Townsend, 1997; Van Tassel-Baska, 1998).

Multicultural Gifted Education

Attention needs to be given to training of teachers and the development of gifted education programs so they can meet the educational needs of gifted minority students. Teachers need to understand the nature of high levels of intelligence and creativity, the cognitive, social, and emotional needs of gifted students and the potential problems experienced by gifted and talented students from diverse backgrounds. In addition, teachers must have the abilities to develop a differentiated and multicultural curriculum to appropriately meet the intellectual needs of culturally diverse gifted students and to create environments in which all gifted and talented students are affirmed and safe. A multicultural gifted curriculum, according to Ford and Harris (1999) is needed to affirm individual differences and provide the inclusiveness that most gifted curricula do not provide.

Community Involvement

Teachers in both segregated and desegregated schools need to become cognizant of the role that community involvement plays in the education of students and develop the skills that are necessary to successfully interface with the community. By the same token, parents of gifted African American students need to realize the importance and significance of their role in the education of their children. They need to be aware of the possible dynamics within predominantly White and culturally diverse classroom environments and provide support for their children. Parents also need to be willing to become actively involved as a resource and liaison between the school and their community.

As we enter the new millennium with the continuing struggle for educational equity, it behooves us to reflect upon lessons learned from previous research, along with current findings regarding the success and failure of gifted African American students in gifted education programs. As we reevaluate what we have learned, we need to listen intently to the voices of those who have suffered most--the children. It would serve us well to consider the old adage, "out of the mouths of babes ..."

Table 1

Characteristics of Teachers Perceived By Students
to be Ineffective

Characteristic         Behaviors of Teachers

Teacher Attitude       Low expectations of African American students
                       Disrespectful to African American students
                       Prejudiced against African American students

Cultural Competence    Lacking an understanding of African American
                         students

Student Interaction    Unfair and unequal treatment of African American
                         students
                       No response to name calling and harassment
                       Mean to African American students
                       Preferential treatment toward White students
Table 2

Characteristics of Teachers Perceived By Students
to be Effective

Characteristic         Behaviors of Teachers

Teacher Attitude       High expectations of African American students
                       Respectful of all students

Cultural Competence    Understood African American culture
                       Used multicultural curriculum
                       Explained concepts in ways students could
                         understand
                       Taught students in small cooperative learning
                         groups
                       Discussed life skills (prejudice, racism,
                         achievement)

Student Interaction    Caring and considerate
                       No tolerance for name calling and harassment
                       Provided a disciplined classroom
                       Fair and equal treatment towards all students

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Deborah A. Harmon is an Assistant Professor in Teacher Education at Eastern Michigan University. Her areas of specialization are in gifted education, urban education, and multicultural education.

Manuscript submitted April, 2000.

Revision accepted October, 2001.