The use of critical incident cases in classrooms.

Abstract

The use of problem-based learning or case study teaching has become widespread in disciplines such as the health sciences, business, public administration, and environmental studies but gradually instructors in additional fields are seeing the pedagogical value of case study teaching and learning in the classroom. This article addresses how faculty from Biology and Geography use case studies and they share two critical incident stories (mini-cases) that they have written and use in their classes.

Introduction

Case studies are one of the most dynamic methods to beckon learners down their own pathways of learning. They allow students to find their own answers to complex problems. They offer students an experience that has significant psychological and social as well as intellectual dimensions (Fink 2003). Case studies are appealing to students because they have a "true to life" feel and help bridge the gap between theory/practice and the academy/workplace (Barkley et al. 2005). As a result of attending the "Enlivening Teaching: Using Discipline-Based Cases to Improve Learning and Teaching Conference" sponsored by Pace University's Center for Case Studies in Education in 2001, we were eager to pursue case method teaching and we now use cases in our classes as a result. This conference increased our understanding of how powerful case studies can be and we returned with a belief that finding and writing cases appropriate to our disciplines should become a priority. We agreed that the use of cases was a great way to engage students in their own learning and enrich the classroom setting.

Case instructors must attempt to balance two somewhat different instructional goals: 1) to systematically analyze the case itself and 2) to link the case to the broader policy context and to relevant research findings, theories, and analytic frameworks (Honan and Sternman Rule 2002). Cases should provide contextualized learning and usually require that the student not only apply course content but also consult alternate sources (McKeachie 2002). As reported by Herreid (1997/1998), the following is a list of key components of a good case: an interesting plot, a current problem, an element of suspense, empathy with the main characters, contains dialog, provokes conflict, relevance to the audience, forces decision-making, general applicability, brevity, strong pedagogical purpose.

Despite the fact that Biology and Geography are disparate fields, we have found that our use of cases has many similarities. The following paragraphs include examples of our own critical incident (mini-cases) and how we use them in our teaching. We will then focus on the assessment of student learning as a result of case study teaching in the classroom.

Santanello

One of the classes I teach is "Human Sexuality and Reproduction". Cases have proven to be very good learning tools that complement the topics I cover. This is a 200-level, general education course with typically 100 to 200 students enrolled. My pedagogical strategy is to introduce subjects with lecture/discussion and to subsequently present a mini-case (critical incident problem), case study, pro/con case, or video case on the topic. The students are tested on the lecture and case material and earn participation points during the class discussions. Topics such as sexual ambiguity, pornography, and female/male circumcision are often debated.

At the start of the course I do a Background Knowledge Probe (Angelo and Cross 1993) to gauge the students' knowledge and perception of different topics I will be covering. I also frequently do informal "show-of-hands" surveys at the beginning of new sections as well as the end to let students see where they stand with respect to their classmates on controversial topics. Most students who enroll in this course perceive male circumcision as a standard medical procedure that is not questioned. They have rarely considered the benefits or risks of the procedure prior to taking this class. This creates a good vehicle for discussion. The in-class and web-based discussions on this mini-case have been particularly engaging because it does not just involve circumcision. It allows students to critically think about the necessity of medical procedures, as well as related social issues.

The Dilemma: To Circumcise or Not to Circumcise? As Golda Weiser sat in her rocker staring at the pouring rain, her thoughts were focused on the beautiful baby boy she cradled in her arms. How could she even consider subjecting her son to the pain of a circumcision? She reflected on previous conversations she had had with health care workers, a religious practitioner, a sex therapist, a benefits consultant, and relatives. "It's ridiculous that we would even consider having an uncircumcised son!" her husband, Bud, had exclaimed. "If for no other reason, think of the taunting he might be subjected to in the locker room as he gets older. Jerry is two days old now. Let's make a decision." Critical Incident Questions to Consider: 1) From the viewpoint of some of the aforementioned professionals, what are the arguments for male circumcision? Against? Base your findings on fact as well as emotion. 2) Pretend you are Golda. What decision would you make and why?

Prior to handing out the case, I describe the medical procedure of circumcision and do a quick "concept mapping" to let the students construct their baseline knowledge of the topic. Concept mapping helps students learn how to ask and answer questions and incorporate any resulting new knowledge into their existing knowledge (Fink 2003). This prompts the students to integrate what they have learned about the male reproductive anatomy, cardiovascular and nervous system structure, etc., and the map helps integrate these topics with the procedure. It also allows them to link concepts such as religious beliefs and incidences of sexually transmitted diseases to the topic and hear each other's ideas. I distribute this case to the class and ask the students to further consider the sides of this issue before the next class period. They are asked to view this case from the viewpoint of the parents, sex therapists, health care workers, etc., with the help of information they get from the textbook, library, web, or pertinent professionals. They are expected to be able to lead a class discussion based on their findings during the next class period. As we engage in a discussion, I list student responses on the blackboard. Herreid (2000) finds that listing a variety of student responses is useful in energizing class discussion. Accordingly, I ask a student to start the discussion and my role as a facilitator is often minimal. Having teachers as facilitators or guides (Smith et al. 2005) encourages student-centered learning. I use name cards to encourage students to call on each other. This promotes diversity into the discussion by getting everyone "into the act" (Herreid 2004). Students can also respond on the Blackboard Discussion Board if they do not get the opportunity to speak. Since they earn a participation grade based on their in-class and web-based discussions, there is an impetus to share what they have learned. They are responsible for the information on the next test which also motivates them to critically think about the topic.

In some instances, an instructor may want to invite the actual case protagonist or actors to take part in the class (Honan and Sternman Rule 2002). I have had guest speakers with medical problems explain how various disorders such as spina bifida or HIV have affected their lives. Presenting these personal stories as cases allows students to connect with a case, particularly the visual learners in the class. Taking Sides, Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Human Sexuality (Taverner 2005) is a good source of Pro and Con debates that initiate discussions on issues such as legal, social and behavioral issues in human sexuality. I also frequently use cases from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (2005). I include a combination of about 8 mini-cases, cases, pro/con debates, or video cases a semester to add variety in the types of cases used. Using numerous cases a semester also gets students accustomed to case discussions (Herreid 2004). With respect to class time, I usually limit the first class concept-mapping session to approximately 10 minutes and the second class discussion to 30 to 40 minutes. The web-based discussion usually lasts until we get to the next "controversial" topic but may continue until the end of the semester. It does take time to read and monitor all of their responses and to record their participation points but I feel it is an important element of their learning.

When asked to identify students' favorite thing about the course, some of the following descriptors have been used concerning cases: cool, informative, useful, candid. One student described the "sense of community" she/he felt because of the case discussions while another "liked cases in general but liked the professor's mini-cases ten times better than the other cases."

Hildebrandt

As a professor in the field of geography, most of my courses focus on contemporary environmental concerns. In my "Climatology" course, I have used cases, some more successfully than others, on many occasions. In this particular course, topics such as global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, and uses of alternative fuels have spawned considerable interest. Based on evaluative essays early in the semester, my perception is that most students come into the course with only a layperson's knowledge of these issues. It is my hope that they will leave this course with greater awareness and concern regarding these topics. I wrote this mini-case as a starting point for discussions on climate change. The critical incident questions are included to help students focus on the issues (Herreid 2000). Based on end-of-semester comments, students become more informed about, and therefore more personally invested in these global issues as a result of discussing it publicly.

The Heated Decision: Carla was pacing across her living room, questioning how she was going to be able to afford to finish graduate school. Her credit card bill had arrived and the idea of paying for her bill, tuition, rent, and car payment was overwhelming her. She felt like she was between a rock and a hard place. Carla was a member of a local environmental group, yet earlier that day an oil and gas company had offered her a full scholarship. Realizing that this scholarship would allow her to finish her degree, she was uncertain what she should do. Critical Incident Questions to Consider: 1) If you were Carla, would you accept the scholarship? Why or why not? 2) What are some of the strongest examples of environmental change that provide evidence of global warming? What are the potential costs if we do nothing about it? Support your arguments with as many facts as possible.

This mini-case is given to the class at the beginning of the class period early in the semester. Students read the case to themselves, and I ask students for their initial reactions in a pre-debate reflective essay. Based on their reactions, the students consistently separate into three groups. They either believe that Carla should either accept or reject the scholarship, or they remain undecided. The two 'decided' groups then proceed to debate Carla's conundrum, while the third group asks questions for clarification of both sides and usually asks questions about global warming. In most instances, students are not informed enough to answer all questions, but exposing the lack of that substantive knowledge is one of my goals.

Many people have strong views about global warming and they take personal exception to those who disagree with them. Pre-debate essays suggest my students are no different. Consequently, I establish rules for the discussion prior to the debate, and I advise the students to not take arguments or disagreements personally. My "Climatology" class typically has between 30-40 students. In the post-debate reflective essay that I assigned in Spring 2005, 90 percent of students expressed comfort discussing these issues in this informal setting, which is consistent with previous class sections. As the facilitator of the debate, I list on the blackboard the strongest arguments for both sides. Students are then asked to read two books, one in support of global warming legislation, and the other one against it. All students must then choose a side and support their arguments based on scientific facts.

In the post-debate essay, I have found that as a result of this debate, students better understand both sides of the global warming debate, whether or not they agree, disagree, or remain undecided. The best case discussions are those that stick with the students and instructor well after the session concludes (Honan and Sternman Rule 2002). Above all, I have been pleased that the use of this case has enabled students to become more informed citizens and better critical thinkers.

The Assessment of Student Learning

Case study teaching, when properly used, can enhance student learning. Students are asked to critically think about a situation and share their ideas. Unlike in a traditional lecture format, this interactive engagement allows many voices to be heard. Encouraging a case discussion to continue on a web forum facilitates communication beyond classroom walls and fosters additional critical thinking and engagement. When students are given minimal information about a topic, which is the case with critical incident problems, students have to research the subject which in turn expands their ability to explore literature.

How do we assess whether students really learn as a result of case study teaching? We have used various classroom assessment techniques (Angelo and Cross 1993) to assess the impact of case study teaching on student learning. We have had Group Instructional Feedback Technique facilitators ask students, "How do the use of case studies enhance or hinder your learning?" to get feedback on what, how much, and how well they ate learning the information presented. We have asked students to comment either in the use of a Minute Paper at the end of a session or via an informal survey which mode of case studies (videos, critical incidents, debates) best facilitated their learning. This information has been used to plan future activities that enhance learning and make our teaching more effective.

Evidence of affective involvement has appeared in these classroom assessment activities and end-of-semester evaluations. The following are some responses to these various qualitative evaluations regarding student learning. They address student preferences to the types of cases used (e.g., mini-cases as described in this paper, video cases, and lengthier pro/con cases) and the use of cases in general:

* I learned the most from the mini-cases because they made me think and explore more.

* I enjoyed the pro/con cases because I got to hear multiple views of the issue and get into the heads of the experts and my peers.

* Video cases are the best because I am a very visual learner. You can actually put a face with the case. I like viewing them on the web.

* Mixing things up makes class way more interesting and also increases knowledge retention.

* Case studies tie in real life situations which makes it easier to understand.

Conclusion

In this paper, we have discussed how case studies can be an effective method of teaching in the disciplines of Biology and Geography. Their use is an effective way to encourage student learning. In end-of-semester evaluations and assessments, many students identified the case studies and the discussions they induced as the best aspects of the courses, and most students appeared to master the topics based on results from examinations of the material.

Herreid (2004) reminds case teachers not to fret if the discussion is not enthralling. A case may lead to an intriguing discussion one semester and the same case may not produce the desired effects the next. However, as indicated in this paper, having several cases a semester will allow students to become more comfortable with this method and can lead in the future to more robust discussions. The more perspectives on a particular problem that are shared the more students can learn from the various points of view. This effect carries over into other domains of the students' educational experience, as they learn to become more reflective and pro-active thinkers.

References

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Cathy Santanello, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, IL Mark Hildebrandt, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, IL

Santanello, Ph.D., is the Director of Instructional Strategies and an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Hildebrandt, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Geography.