The soldier's guiding hand.

Once the map and compass were the only tools the infantryman had to help him navigate. As future soldier systems become more of a reality technology is coming to his aid. The ability to get from one place to another, on foot, in the dark, in bad weather and in the confusion and disorientation of the infantry battle is a key skill for the infantryman. The individual, and even more importantly, the junior commander, must be able to map-read accurately.

Unless he can locate his own position both on the map and on the ground, and plot other positions, the soldier may get lost and be unable to complete his mission; he cannot call for support, he cannot report where he is and he is more likely to cause blue-on-blue incidents. This is true whether in a rural or an urban area--it is just as easy to get lost in a maze of back streets as it is in a wood.

Not long ago the basic navigation tools for the infantry soldier were the map and compass, used together and related to the surrounding terrain. But map reading and navigation with only a compass to help are skills that have to be learned and then kept in constant practise. As his job becomes more technically demanding there are an increasing number of calls on the soldier's time to keep a range of skills up to date, so any assistance that technology can provide in this most basic of requirements is welcomed.

As far as the soldier is concerned, the critical information he requires is the answer to the question <<where am I on the ground and how do I get to where I want to be?>> He therefore needs to see this positional data plotted on a representation of the ground, which is usually, though not always, a map, although in some circumstances, such as in urban terrain, an image might be better. So the most useful technology is that which automatically combines positional data with terrain data and presents it to the soldier in a form that enables him to see where he is (and therefore his relationship with his surroundings) and thus navigate to where he wants to go. In other words, to show him his position automatically plotted on a map and displayed in a format which is convenient and useable. This may be a conventional flat LCD screen on a hand-held device, or the screen of the eyepiece of a helmet-mounted display, or both. It is also unlikely to need to show more than his relatively immediate vicinity.

A solution that also displays the locations of his team members and any designated targets is also valuable, but this does not necessarily have to be on a map--it could just be a display showing range and direction. In the relatively limited world of the individual soldier, under some circumstances, e.g. when in fairly close contact with the enemy, such a display could be more useful than a map background, which still requires mental translation to reality. A three-dimensional terrain view would overcome this.

For the commander, however, more sophisticated geographical support is required. For example, the ability to show inter-visibility, i.e., what can be seen from where, is significant for the patrol commander in planning routes and objectives to ensure the most concealed of the former and the best view of and approach to the latter. The results of terrain analysis--what limitations the terrain places on movement across the spectrum of transport assets from foot to tracked vehicle--will show limitations on routes and approaches, as will the provision of information on obstacles, particularly man-made ones such as minefields. If this information can be brought to the junior commander together with his own position and presented to him in an easily useable form then it will reduce the amount of time and effort he has to expend on collating and plotting, reducing his workload and allowing him more time to concentrate on the dynamics of planning and executing his task.

GPS is the Key

Today's key technology for providing positional data is the Global Positioning System (GPS), which is now ubiquitous in both civilian and military equipment and needs little explanation. A GPS terminal will provide an accurate position, and at its most basic is in the form of locational data such as grid coordinates or latitude and longitude.

The hand-held GPS receiver has been a common sight for some time. The Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) from Rockwell Collins was first fielded by the US Army in 1994 and more than 185,000 have been provided worldwide, but the data it offered still had to be transferred onto a map. The PLGR is now being replaced with the Defence Advanced GPS Receiver (Dagr), also from Rockwell Collins, for which Low Rate Initial Production was approved in March 2004. This is considerably smaller and lighter than the PLGR, measuring 16 x 8.6 x 3.8 cm and weighing around one-half kilogram and it includes the Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module (Saasm), the latest generation of security architecture, which significantly improves security Positional information can also be shown against a map background on the Dagr display. The Dagr Map System, which uses the US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency's Commercial Joint Mapping Toolkit (C/JMTK) software and Rockwell Collins' GPS Map Toolkit, allows an operator to load and display a variety of map sets which can then be viewed together with waypoints, routes and alerts on the Dagr's moving map display. The principal component of the C/JMTK is ESRI's Geographical Information System (GIS) software ArcGIS, which provides a wide range of analytical and display tools.

However, the Dagr is still a standalone, hand-held device the principal purpose of which is to undertake navigational tasks. The real advance is that GPS technology has now developed sufficiently to enable receivers to be embedded in a suitable platform, either a wearable computer which is part of a complete assembly, or in the small hand-held ruggedised computer which is part of the individual soldier's equipment and provides him with additional facilities. These platforms are a key element of most of the future soldier systems currently under development in a number of countries such as Land Warrior (LW) in the US, Future Integrated Soldier System (Fist) in the UK, the German Army Soldier Modernisation Programme--Infanterist der Zukunft (IdZ)--and the French Fantassin a Equipements et Liaisons Integrees--future integrated infantryman technology (Felin).

The US embedded GPS military receiver is the Ground-Based GPS Receiver Application Module (GB-Gram), which is designed to provide a low-cost, standardised embeddable GPS. The Gram is a lightweight Circuit Card Assembly (CCA) containing a twelve-channel, continuous-tracking, dual-frequency GPS receiver and Saasm. It measures approximately 6.4 x 8.9 cm and weighs about 113 grams. Full rate production was ordered in March 2004.

Dead Reckoning

GPS is not, however, a universal panacea. There are times when GPS communications do not work, inside buildings or in dense woodland for example, so it does not necessarily provide all the answers. An alternative is therefore needed that will take over the provision of positional data to the soldier until GPS connectivity is restored.

One such system is the patented Dead Reckoning Module from Point Research in California. The Dead Reckoning Module is a miniature, self-contained, electronic navigation unit that provides the user's position relative to an initialisation point (usually provided by GPS). It contains a tilt-compensated magnetic compass, electronic pedometer and barometric altimeter to provide a continuous deduced position. A microprocessor performs dead reckoning calculations and includes a Kalman filter to combine the dead reckoning data with GPS data when it is available. The filter and other proprietary algorithms use GPS data to calibrate dead reckoning sensors for a typical dead reckoning accuracy of two to five per cent of distance travelled, entirely without GPS.

A similar offering is the Pedestrian Navigation Module from Swiss optical device firm Vectronix. It is basically a pedometer that detects steps and changes in acceleration, linked to a digital compass, a barometer (to detect changes in height) and a gyro. The software developed by Vectronix fuses the data received from these sources, providing positional information that can then be displayed on a digital map, either on a hand-held display or injected into a helmet-mounted system. The advantage of this system is that it is independent of GPS, so is ideal for use in urban and other areas where GPS may not always be available.

Vectronix also produces the BIM4 helmet-mounted night vision monocular goggle, similar to others being considered for soldier programmes. This has an optional import module which allows a range of pictorial information to be presented into the field of view, and this information can include mapping and positional information.

What is on Offer

Britain has just completed the first set of trials for the Fist programme, and V1 included integrated GPS and a variety of displays. As the trials were designed to establish requirement rather than test specific pieces of equipment the project was reluctant to reveal whose equipment was used. However, Lt Col Andrew MacNaughton, Fist Project Manager, told the author that the improvement in navigation was particularly noticeable at night. There was still some reluctance to abandon the paper map altogether, so <<user confidence is a key issue>>. This mirrors the US experience with vehicle-borne situational displays during the advance on Baghdad, during which more than one commander's confidence was dramatically enhanced on successfully navigating through a sandstorm. Both hand-held and helmet-mounted displays (HMD) were trialled by the Fist team, but MacNaughton said it is <<not 100 per cent certain>> that the latter will be included in the final solution, an interesting observation given that most other programmes seem to be including one. Issues still to be addressed include the loss of natural night vision through using an HMD at night. He also suggested that the issue of <<large map area good, small map area bad>> is <<more an issue for commanders than for the individual rifleman>>, a comment borne out by the recent developments in devices for junior commanders described later in this article.

The system developed for the IdZ programme, currently in limited operational use with the German contingent with ISAF in Afghanistan, includes a Navipad, which is a ruggedised PDA with an integrated digital magnetic compass made under license by Eads Defence Electronics. The Navipad runs the company's proprietary Navicom software. Combined with the GPS receiver integrated into the system, the software allows navigation and orientation via digital maps of the area of operations, which are provided on a separate memory card. For communication purposes the user may generate, process and transmit both text and graphics. The data exchange between the Navipad and the Thales intra-section radio is via wireless Bluetooth, to allow hand-held operation. The radio allows for the exchange of data within the infantry section, enabling their positional data to be displayed, and because the system can be linked with the German Army tactical C2 system (Fuhrungsmittelausstattung taktisch = Faust), wider situational awareness data can also be displayed. As well as being the prime contractor for Fist Thales is also involved in other European programmes.

Trials of the US Land Warrior system took place in October and December 2004 at Fort Benning, Georgia. The navigation element of the system currently consists of embedded GPS and the Point Research DRM, providing input to a digital map display using a GIS developed specifically for the programme, according to General Dynamics; the prime contractor for Land Warrior. Also projected on this display are the locations of other blue forces, particularly the soldier's own squad and platoon.

For the individual soldier the map is provided within the eyepiece of a helmet-mounted display, in this case a Kaiser Electro-Optics monocular. Commanders are provided with a ruggedised PDA integrated with the Land Warrior system, known as the Commander's Digital Assistant. Although this is also provided with embedded GPS system it uses the navigational data provided by the Land Warrior system. The embedded capability allows its use as a navigational device when not integrated with the Land Warrior system.

Soldiers taking part in the trial found the navigation system <<extremely helpful>>, although as with all new equipment there will be a need to build confidence in it. There was no problem in the loss of natural night vision using the monocular, which can be dimmed. Recent veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan observed that of particular value was the rapid orientation the system provided after helicopter drop-off. Knowing the whereabouts of other members of the squad made it possible to conduct operations in a more dispersed fashion. Adams considered that further modifications to tactics, techniques and procedures will emerge as trials progress.

The Commander's Needs

The Commander's Digital Assistant (CDA) is something of a generic term, as there is at least one other hand-held device with the same name and providing navigational capabilities in the form of embedded GPS and digital map display. This one is produced by Raytheon Technical Services, who were showing it at the AUSA meeting in October 2004. According to Raytheon it was developed <<in response to a group of requirements from Project Manager Soldier for hand-held terminals to host the US Army's situational awareness software for the commander>>. The CDA, developed from Raytheon's Air Warrior Digital Kneeboard, measures approximately 17 x 25.4 x 5 cm and weighs 2.5 kg including its battery. It has an 800-MHz processor and runs Windows or Red Hat Linux. It has a 16.2-cm daylight readable colour LCD with an integrated touch screen--a colour goggle display connected through a VGA coupling can be provided. Embedded are the GPS-Gram Saasm and an L-band transceiver module.

Of similar capability, and currently undergoing trials, is the Combat Information Tool (CIT) from L-3 Ruggedised Command & Control Solutions. The CIT is based on L-3's Portable User Data Terminal (Pudt), was developed and is in production for Britain's Bowman programme. The unit measures approximately 23 x 11.4 x 4.5 cm and weighs 1.20 kg with its battery, has a 16.5-cm colour LCD, a 206 MHz processor and uses MS Windows CE3. To the basic Pudt package and in response to a customer need generated from the US Ranger and Special Forces community, according to Neil Obright from L-3, the company has added embedded Saasm GPS, L-band satellite communications and Linux. He also observed that the development of the CIT was in response to a demand for a bigger screen, and although that came with the disadvantage of a bigger, heavier piece of equipment than a hand-held PDA, it also provided valuable additional capability.

Both devices therefore offer the user a stand-alone navigational capability plus the ability to receive the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) situational picture from beyond line-of-sight, a key requirement both for less conventional forces and for operating on the dispersed battlefield of the future. This more capable package provides the junior leader, particularly at platoon level, with the navigational tools and situational awareness on a wider scale than the individual soldier. It seems likely that both the CDA and the CIT are hunting the same market.

Another navigational device developed by Raytheon for the individual soldier is embedded in the company's Microlight pocket-sized IP radio. This measures 17.5 x 8.12 x 4 cm, weighs just over .45 kg and currently uses the EPLRS waveform, which is the principal carrier for the US Army Tactical Internet. When GPS is not available the MicroLight exploits its networking capability to provide data on user positions. It also provides a vectoring facility, with a synthesised voice providing the range and bearing to a particular point through the headset. This enables the movement of squad members to be coordinated, or simple directions to a rendezvous point given when a group becomes dispersed.

Talla-Tech has provided a large number of its Military Rugged Personal Digital Assistant (MRPDA-55) to US forces, notably to the US Marine Corps for its Dismounted Data Automated Communications Terminal (D-Dact), which provides individual marines and junior commanders with a data terminal. The core equipment has a 400 MHz processor, a 7.62-cm touch sensitive screen and runs on Windows CE. Navigation capability is offered in a version that has embedded military SAASM or commercial GPS, with an integrated sealed GPS antenna as well as a port for a remote antenna. This version measures 10.2 x 22.22 x 5.84 cm and weighs just over one kg. A variety of interfaces are provided.

Israeli Offerings

Elbit Systems was awarded the contract to lead the Israeli Digital Soldier programme in mid-2004. Two main elements within the company's system provide navigational information and present it to the soldier. The Integrated Soldier Tactical Computer will merge locational information from an integrated GPS with digital mapping data. This device has a 500 MHz processor, measures 22.3 x 10.6 x 8.3 cm and weighs 3 kg, so in its current form is more akin to the size of the CDA and CIT than the PDA. It has a variety of interfaces. Information from the computer is displayed either on its screen or on the soldier's Personal Combat Display. This is a helmet-mounted display developed by Elbit, with an organic light-emitting diode screen. The control unit is integrated with the headset so only one cable is required; Elbit has also developed a wireless version, thus negating the need for the cable.

Another development from Israel, from NA-OR (Navigation & Orientation Systems) is the Spatial Orientation System (SOS), which can be fully integrated into the same company's Advanced Integrated Soldier System (AISS) or used as a stand-alone device. The SOS is a handheld device that includes a laser rangefinder (LRF), digital magnetic compass, a x7 magnification monocular, image intensifier or flir capability for night vision, an 800 x 600-pixel colour display and a communications controller. It operates in conjunction with GPS and a computer. When integrated with the AISS the GPS is mounted on the shoulder and the computer fits in the combat vest. Slightly confusingly, the computer is also called a Commander's Digital Assistant, although it has no integral display. If not in the AISS the SOS can use any other computer and GPS.

Navigation, positional and route information are shown in the colour display against a map or image background, over which situational awareness information can be added. When targets are beyond the range of the LRF their locations can be calculated by using a combination of GPS and the digital magnetic compass, by measuring target bearing and elevation from the observer. This data is triangulated with other known locations, established using the LRF (linked to GPS), by the computer, resulting in a positional fix on the target.

The AISS includes additional navigational and display facilities. An additional digital magnetic compass is mounted on the weapon, a helmet-mounted display with an organic LED micro-display from eMagin and a further hand-held micro display. These can display the positional and terrain information from the SOS. Initial trials of the system held with the assistance of Israeli Special Forces took place last year and according to the company were "highly successful". Operational prototypes procured by the IDF are to be evaluated this year.

The Felin programme navigation will be based on integrated GPS providing positional information to the system that is centred around a wearable computer with both a thorax display and a monocular display in the helmet assembly. Section commanders will get a more capable terminal, although the hardware is as yet unspecified.

The spectacle of the infantryman crouched over his map in the dark and the rain, trying not to give out too much light as he works out where his navigation went wrong, may not be a thing of the past just yet. But it will not be long before it is.