The role of learning strategies in web-based instruction.

Abstract

Web-based instruction, a non-linear hypermedia and/or hypertext learning technology, offers educators a method to deliver instruction that may enhance the learning process. However, educators are still inquiring why some learners may benefit more than do others. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review current research studies examining the role of different learning strategies employed by learners and report how these strategies influence students' failures or successes in acquiring information presented through Web-based instruction. Research studies reviewed reported effective learning strategies play a significant role in academic achievement. However, this paper concludes more research is needed to identify which learning strategies are most effective for high academic achievers involved in Web-based instruction.

*********

Background: Relevant Pedagogical Issues in Web-based Learning

The rapid evolution of computer and Internet technologies over the past few years has transformed the World Wide Web (WWW), a global library of multimedia documents, into perhaps the most economical and democratic medium for learning and teaching at a distance. The Web has become an increasingly powerful, ubiquitous, interactive, and dynamic medium for sharing information; it provides educators with the opportunity to develop new learning experiences for students not previously possible (Stair, 1997). Additionally, Web-based instruction furnishes an innovative method for delivering instructional materials to geographically dispersed learners using the Web as the catalyst. Most Web-based instruction has two prominent forms: hypertext and hypermedia instructional formats that utilize the numerous attributes and existing resources of the World Wide Web to create a richer, meaningful environment in which learning is fostered and supported (O'Hanlon, 1999).

However, here lies the caveat: students must employ effective learning strategies in order to be academically successful in this new, yet often challenging learning environment. As a greater number of institutions of higher learning incorporate Webbased instruction into their curriculums, educators are asking important questions such as 1) Which learning strategies are successful in Web-based instruction?, 2) Are there certain learning strategies being used with success in traditional classroom instruction transferable to Web-based instruction?, 3) Is there a whole new set of learning strategies that must be used by students in this new learning environment, and 4) If Web-based instruction does require new learning strategies, how do we teach them to our students?

Definitions

In order to provide a background for this paper, working definitions of key terms are presented to avoid ambiguity for the reader. While these common terms may be defined differently than those typically found, they provide a common basis for understanding this article.

Hypermedia

Hypermedia systems are computer-based software modules, which may combine text, images, sound and video. While hypermedia was once confined to CD-ROM and videodisk medium, the Web is now becoming more capable of delivering hypermedia learning modules. These systems are designed, as non-linear, reticulate structures of linked ideas, with no predefined path to traverse when navigating through a mesh of information. This unique characteristic of hypermedia allows for a high degree of learner control. Therefore, learners are free to select which learning strategy or strategies are the most effective and efficient at achieving learning tasks (Wilhelm, Fiedemann & Erickson, 1998). Nevertheless, as with Web-based learning, all students may not have the requisite learning skills to benefit from this type of learning environment.

Hypertext

A hypertext system works like a database that stores text-based learning materials. Hypertext consists of textual information units connected by associative links and is the scaffolding on which most Web-based instruction is built. Like hypermedia, hypertext-based systems grant learners maximal freedom to access, select, search and browse through available information in a non-linear fashion. A major goal of current research in hypertext learning systems is to determine which navigational patterns, learning strategies and tactics more accomplished students utilize in their interactions with these learning systems and how these requisite skills can be inculcated in all students (Burbules & Callister 1996). While the larger hypertext systems were once contained on CDROMS, such as Microsoft Encarta, these are now becoming predominantly Webbased systems.

Web-based Instruction

Web-based instruction has two popular forms: non-linear hypertext and hypermedialearning technologies. Moreover, Web-based tools such as educational development tools (e.g. BlackboardTM, FilamentalityTM, WebCTTMand QuiaTM), and assessment tools (e.g. online diagnostics and testing), are newer components of Web-based systems. These offer educators a medium to deliver instruction at a distance, which may facilitate and enhance the learning process due to their media-rich environments and ability to link together several pieces of information (Gibbs, 1999). While these technologies pose an opportunity, they also present a challenge to educators. Individual learners utilize different learning strategies in Web-based instruction and these may contribute to greater or lesser success in completing learning tasks.

Learning Strategies

Traditional learning strategies have been researched by notable academics such as Pintrich et al. (1991, 2000), and Zimmerman (1989, 2001). In essence, those students who are more active in their learning processes and apply more active and constructive learning strategies are more successful (Zimmerman, 2002). Learning strategies consist of basic rehearsal strategies such as memorization techniques, drill and practice, shadowing, underlining and basic elaboration strategies such as relating information. Complex elaboration strategies include paraphrasing, critical thinking or summarizing. Organizational strategies consist of grouping, ordering, outlining, developing hierarchies and using advance organizers. Social learning strategies include helpseeking, peer-learning, questioning, and critical thinking. There are also metacognitive strategies such as self-checking, planning and monitoring which have been categorized as patterns of learning. No doubt, both cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies are used by the higher achievers in traditional environments (Pintrich, 2000); yet to date, little is understood as to which learning strategies are more successful in a Webbased learning environment.

Emerging learning strategies resulting from Web-based instruction include decisionmaking processes that are thought to separate students into different achievement categories. Because of this high degree of control, individuals are free to select and use different navigational and search strategies. While hypermedia and hypertext allow the learner to control and explore alternatives and to discover relationships among information sources/sites presented, it is essential to define what parameters delineate high knowledge transfer and acquisition in these systems. For example, searching strategies consist of 1) key word searches, 2) visual search strategies, 3) global semantic similarity, or the grouping strategies used for similar terms and ideas, and 4) the distance between related materials as denoted by numbers of links to connect them. Different navigational strategies employed by learners consist of scanning, searching, browsing, exploring and wandering through material (Beasley & Waugh, 1997). Therefore, the real question lies in uncovering what strategies are most effective for true knowledge acquisition. While these strategies may be dictated by the software and instructional design, in some cases, they may be controlled by the learner's navigational strategies. However, in general all learning, search and navigational strategies will vary by age and sophistication of the learner as well as the their learning goals.

Review of the Literature

The literature review has three major sections: hypermedia, hypertext and Web-based instructional media studies. There are similar issues for all three mediums as they have changed the traditional lecture and reading style instructional delivery system into one that is more interactive, flexible and open-ended. No doubt, this has spawned a whole new set of research as educators are concerned about how to best capitalize on these new technologies.

Hypermedia and Individual Learning Strategies

Individual learning strategies are those methods employed by learners to facilitate acquisition of knowledge and skills. A series of empirical studies investigated individual strategies in hypermedia systems in different student populations (DavidsonShivers, Rasmussen & Bratton-Jeffery, 1997a; Davidson-Shivers, Shorter, Jordan, & Rasmussen, 1999b; Lidstone and Lucas, 1998).

Learning strategies generated by K-12 students in a hypermedia instructional delivery environment was investigated by Davidson-Shivers, Rasmussen & Bratton-Jeffery (1997a) & Davidson-Shivers, Shorter, Jordan, & Rasmussen (1999b). The 1997 study with 5th graders, conducted by Davidson-Shivers et al, was designed to identify strategies generated by individual students in a hypermedia environment based on his or her familiarity with more traditional teaching approaches such as lectures and reading textbooks. The study employed both quantitative pretest and posttest score comparisons on learning materials as well as qualitative methods of observations and structured interviews, which examined variations in learning strategy use in relation to performance. Finally, the interviews were used to identify navigational points of departure used by students throughout the lesson and their reasons for making those decisions. The authors reported higher and average performing students tended to use a greater number of and a greater variety of learning strategies in a hypermedia learning environment than did lower performing students. Specifically, the more successful students utilized greater monitoring processes (metacognitive strategies) and had greater reliance on basic and complex elaboration strategies. As for navigational strategies employed, most students simply followed the menu choice in order of presentation. This implies students are reliant on well-founded instructional design to sequence materials in the optimal fashion.

In a later follow-up study with the same population, Davidson-Shivers, Shorter, Jordan, and Rasmussen (1999b) used a similar research design methodology in their previous study to investigate learning strategies with the addition of think-alouds; however, the researchers extended their original design to include elucidation of motivational rationales for navigational decision patterns during the follow-up interviews. Motivational components included confidence, order, practice, curiosity, familiarity, and fun. Data analysis of navigational decisions revealed the most successful posttest performances were made when the learner based navigation on confidence, order and practice respectively. Less learning progress was made when decisions were based on curiosity, familiarity, and fun. The study also reported that higher performing students had wide variation in learning strategies, yet high and average students employed more comprehension monitoring (metacognitive) strategies than lower achieving students.

The Lidstone & Lucas (1998) study focused on post-graduate adult learners and the learning strategies employed in hypermedia environments. Data sources included videotaping, audio, student written reports, personal interviews and focus group discussions. The researchers concluded that students with little experience in hypermedia learning environments found that using familiar strategies for learning from conventional text proved unsatisfactory in this type of learning environment. Also, student preoccupation with the conventions of the hypermedia program took precedence over intellectual engagement with the substantive content of the program. These two findings imply the necessity for teaching necessary learning and navigational strategies to enhance students knowledge acquisition. Additionally, this study examined student interaction strategies when assigned to pairs. It noted five separate interactional patterns: independent, cooperative, accommodative, mediated and reflective collaboration; therefore, grouping may be a factor when considering peer-learning as a learning strategy. This finding is supported in traditional classroom grouping literature and educators should be aware that grouping affects learning interactions.

Studies Focusing on Hypermedia Navigational Strategies and Learner Outcomes

Although the above studies were interested in navigational strategies, they were not the primary focus of those studies. The following studies delved into students' navigational patterns to define the physical actions students use in searching a hypermedia site. Several studies investigating these navigational strategies were identified in a literature review (Beasley & Waugh, 1997; Schroeder & Grabowski, 1995). Beasley and Waugh (1997) utilized background software, which recorded the predominant navigational patterns college-level learners employed during a hypermedia lesson. These students were using a hypermedia lesson presented in a fully constrained hierarchy. Data analysis revealed a strong tendency to employ a top-down, left-to-right (depth-first) strategy in order to ensure an understanding of the domain's structure as well as to guarantee full coverage of the material. However, when subsequently reviewing learning materials, students did not utilize a top-down left-right strategy. The authors concluded that these types of hypermedia traversal are determined by cultural reading styles and previous learning strategies. For example, when covering textbook materials for the first time, learners sequentially read the text left to right and top to bottom. Likewise in a review of the materials, students often skim and skip to information on a "need-to-know" basis. Naturally, this has implications for developers of Web-based instruction.

A similar study by Schroeder & Grabowski (1995) examined navigational strategies based upon traditional systems using links as compared to systems which supply navigational aids such as concept mapping diagrams with simple links and concept mapping diagrams with detailed (i.e., annotated) links, which may be similar to the learning strategy corresponding to schematic organizing. The sample in this study consisted of 113 undergraduate students completing a hypermedia lesson on the structure of the heart (60 screen database). Students with higher prior knowledge tended to view more of the screens. There was a positive, although non-significant correlation, between the amount of prior knowledge and the number of screens viewed (r = .28, p = .0977). Novice learners, as researchers speculate, may have exited the program more quickly due to frustration with the hypermedia software. Moreover, in spite of the more advanced branching options with diagrammatic concept mapping, students tended to rely upon top-down reading and information selection strategies as in the previous study by Beasley and Waugh (1997). In fact, in follow-up interviews, students felt the non-linear pathways provided via the diagrams were confusing; the majority of students preferred to approach the task in a sequential pattern as in reading a textbook.

Learner control in using a hypermedia algebra system was investigated by Henry (1995). In his study of college students, he devised an algebra remediation program where he assigned students into one of two treatment groups. One group had branchingoptions in the algebra program whereas the second group could only progress thorough the tutorial in a linear manner, either forward or backward. Although both groups made significant achievement gains in their pretest to posttest scores, posttest achievement mean scores showed no significant difference between the two groups. Moreover, the group with branching options selected a linear path through the tutorial rather than employing the flexibility of the system. Henry concluded that familiarizing novice users with the use of hypermedia programs may be beneficial in that they may utilize more advanced searching and navigational methods.

In summary, hypermedia navigational studies show that users in general, and novice users specifically, rely upon traditional search and navigational patterns in this type of learning environment, i.e. linear as compared to branching (Beasley & Waugh, 1997; Lidstone & Lucas, 1998; Schroeder & Grabowski, 1995). Based upon recommendations by researchers in these studies, it is important to teach novice users how to enhance their learning strategies to overcome disorientation and distraction in hypermedia learning environments. Possessing a richer set of learning strategies may further assist learners to accomplish their learning goals in this new environment effectively and efficiently.

Hypertext Based Learning Systems and Students

Like hypermedia, hypertext can allow students the freedom to navigate courses though learning material in a manner determined by their own interests, curiosity, and experience, or by the nature of the learning task at hand, rather than following a predetermined course. Due to its flexible structure, hypertext-learning systems facilitate active exploratory learning, encourage inquiry and discovery, and thus, enhance learning. While fostering a large degree of learner autonomy, it may also serve to distract less disciplined learners.

Astleitner (1997) measured the effects of browsing in ill-structured hypertext. He assessed whether learning outcomes can be improved when external learning aids, such as memo pads, are utilized. The authors reported that less action-oriented students usage of external aids i.e., memo pads, increased intentional learning while it reduced incidental learning in ill-structured hypertext systems. The study also found that allotting an average time for performing tasks led to more intentional learning as students had to keep their focus.

Balcytiene (1999) studied college students' levels of knowledge acquisition through reading hypertext. He then analyzed navigational and reading strategies and their relationship between individual learning differences. This study reported a) systematic reading and exploration were the most successful hypertext reading patterns; b) self-regulated learners profited most from a hypertext reading program; and c) low-prior knowledge students benefited more from the hypertext program than those with high-prior knowledge. According to Balcytiene this last finding can be attributed to the fact that the hypertext system was highly structured, similar to linear text, and learning strategies used by low-prior knowledge students were similar to strategies they successfully utilized in linear text. Balcytiene also concluded that metacognitive training should be an essential element for preparing students to study in a hypertext environment as they can self-initiate and constructively guide their learning by closely monitoring their own progress. No doubt, these are essential characteristics of successful learning.

Shapiro (1998a, 1999b) also studied hypertext system structures classified as: hierarchical (i.e., top-down) clustered (i.e., concept maps), unstructured (i.e. user's choice), and linear (i.e. one frame at a time) and asked the following questions: 1) what is the effect on learning from hypertext? 2) Do structural differences influence navigation patterns? Shapiro reported these college-level participants in the less structured system ran the risk of becoming disoriented unless they became active agents in planning and monitoring their navigational patterns and strategies. Basically, they needed to concentrate on the hyperlink names and where they were headed. As a result, the less structured system required a deeper level of information processing implicitly provided by the hyperlinks in order to stay oriented in the system and make sense of the material, which in turn, prompted a greater depth of understanding. According to Shapiro, these findings suggest a highly structured system may be counterproductive as it offers participants an easier way to get around the system while requiring little thought. Although this study seems counterintuitive compared to the previous mentioned studies, it also reinforces the notion that forcing students to be very aware of their metacognitive processing may be the crucial variable which ultimately determines learner success.

Recker and Pirolli (1995) investigated learning strategies in a hypertext-based instructional environment that contained instruction on programming in the computer language of Lisp. Their study determined that more successful learners, i.e., those who exhibited programming success, were much more active and strategy driven in their use of the environment. They tended to focus more on important instructional concepts and were driven to understand the materials. While less successful learners were very data driven with their actions appearing to be mostly motivated by features present on the instruction screens. Moreover, this system provided elaborations for the more passive learners, yet they did not gain advantage from them. The higher achievers however, were active in constructing their own elaborations. These findings coincide with Shapiro(1998a, 1998b) studies. In other words, less successful learners were more passive regardless of lesson aids. Moreover, as in other studies, (Beasley & Waugh, 1997; Lidstone & Lucas, 1998; Schroeder & Grabowski, 1995) overall students preferred to navigate sequentially through the materials not relying upon hyperlinks. In this study, the authors conclude that further research warrants more investigation into the use of metacognitive strategies as a key learning determinant.

In summary, current research studies support the idea that hypertext learning environments were effective to address a variety of individual differences in knowledge processing and information acquisition (Astleitner, 1997; Balcytiene, 1999). Researchers reported successful learners were able to navigate the hypertext system using a variety of learning strategies in order to take advantage of its non-linear structure. These studies provide valuable insight to identify that perhaps pre-training should be provided to activate learners' metacognitive monitors. Moreover, training should incorporate demonstrations and efficient navigation and learning strategies in hypertext learning environments.

Web-based Instruction Research

Web-based instruction is a non-linear hypertext and/or hypermedia-learning technology that offers educators a way to deliver instruction at a distance, facilitates and enhances the learning process through its media rich environment and its ability to link together pieces of information (Gibbs, 1999). As with hypermedia and hypertext, individual learners will utilize different learning strategies in Web-based instruction for successful completion of learning tasks. However, most students generally have a limited repertoire of learning strategies to draw upon, some of which may not be effective in Web-based instruction.

A study by O'Hanlon (1999) investigated learning strategies used by different learners in Web-based instruction. This study examined 465 user history logs in a Communications 140 class at Ohio State University. Her study focused on a Web-based library tutorial to determine patterns of usage by course-affiliated and general users. The tutorials include lessons, quizzes, and supplemental features. She reported general users were more likely to view only lesson portions of the tutorials, skipping quizzes; while course-affiliated users required to take quizzes, skipped lessons preceding these quizzes 40% of the time. In addition, only 9 to 16% of all users selected the strategy of viewing supplemental features; however, no significant differences between behavior of course-affiliated and general users were noted in this regard. Yet, when the library system was modified to calculate grades and penalize wrong answers on the online quiz, 15% fewer students skipped over the preceding lesson materials. O'Hanlon concludes that graded quizzes are motivational for course-affiliated students to seriously learn the material, but she warns they must be implemented to support learning goals.

Strategies employed by adult learners in an open-ended Web-based information system were studied by Hill and Hannafin, (1997). The authors reported a) users who perceived medium self-efficacy engaged in more strategies and at a higher level than low self-efficacy participants; b) participants with limited subject knowledge engaged in more primitive search strategies; c) participants with low system knowledge engaged in more primitive search strategies than those with high system knowledge, although some possessed significant prior domain knowledge; d) system disorientation resulted in users employing more primitive search strategies; and e) participants with high metacognitive knowledge were better able to reflect on their search strategy processes enabling them to refine their actions and make better use of the system.

Shih et al. (1998) studied 99 university-level students, examining how students' learning strategies, patterns of learning, and achievement differed in relation to their learning styles in a Web-based course. Data for this study was collected using an online questionnaire, containing demographic questions in addition to statements on learning strategies taken form the Motivation Strategies of Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Study participants were also administered the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) to evaluate their individual learning styles. Use of learning strategies in this study correlated significantly with student achievement regardless of gender. Moreover, previous experience or field dependency did not significantly affect learning outcomes. What mattered was that general use of learning strategies resulted in higher overall achievement in this Web-based assessment. In particular, students used identification of key concepts and key word definition as their primary learning strategies. Self-checking and slide review were the most widely used patterns of learning. Therefore, Shih's findings correspond with the studies by Davidson-Shivers, Rasmussen & Bratton Jeffery (1997a) & Davidson-Shivers, Shorter, Jordan, & Rasmussen (1999b) in that students who used basic elaboration and self-checking (i.e., metacognitive strategies) fared better than those who did not use learning strategies. However, it must be noted that in all studies, students' ability to use more complex strategies was not assessed. Therefore, we might conclude that various learning strategies should be taught enabling students to maximize their learning experiences.

Conclusions

In summary, the review of research studies examining Web-based hypermedia/hypertext instructional technology generally revealed support for these emergent learning tools. Some studies supported use of this form of instructional delivery to support different learning styles and strategies, and learners with different learning styles/strategies performed equally well in achievement (Shill, et al, 1998; Beasley & Waugh, 1997). Secondly, novice users and those with low-system knowledge tended to become disoriented in this learning environment causing them to select faulty learning strategies (Schroeder & Grabowski, 1995; Shapiro, 1998a, 1999b; Hill & Hannafin, 1997). In addition, novice users relied upon familiar learning strategies, with proven success in conventional learning environments such as face-to-face classrooms. However, these strategies proved unsatisfactory for Web-based instruction (Balcytiene, 1999; Lidstone & Lucas, 1998). Finally, studies reported learning strategies play a significant role in academic achievement in Web-based hypermedia and hypertext learning environments, with higher performing students using a greater number and a greater variety of learning strategies (Davidson-Shivers, Rasmussen & Bratton-Jeffery, 1997a; Davidson-Shivers, Shorter, Jordan, & Rasmussen, 1999b; Recker & Pirolli, 1995; Shill, et al, 1998). But it is believed that there is a limited set of studies relating to effective learning strategies in Web-based instruction. Thus more research is needed. The results would provide instructors approaches to assist their students in optimizing their knowledge acquisition in these new learning environments. However, not only is there room for improving instructional methods used by teachers so that they act as external regulating agents in the learning process (Azevedo, Ragan, Cromley, & Pritchett, 2002), but also, a great onus lies with the designers of these systems.

Implications

Additional research in learning strategies and their role in academic achievement in Web-based instruction will provide valuable data that can be used to improve learning outcomes. Instructional designers armed with this information will be able to develop, design, and implement Web-based courses which are user-friendly to a wide range of learning strategies, reduce cognitive overload, incorporate internal navigation aids into courses, and prevent or minimize student disorientation and distraction. For example, inclusion of tutorials which require the students to engage in different learning strategies (e.g., know, identify the key concepts and write them in your own words, draw a diagram of this model, etc.) should be considered. Moreover, self-checking tools to encourage metacognitive monitoring should be implemented. Instructional designers might include not only course objectives, but graded assessment tools which require students to utilize memorize and elaborate upon key terms and ideas. Navigational aids may also provide lower-level users the support they require to stay on task. In turn, educators will be able to teach and guide students as to what learning strategies have been proven successful in Web-based instruction based upon empirical, not anecdotal data. In addition, this research will assist educators to plan, organize, and deliver quality Web-based instruction in a manner that will improve student achievement.

References

Astleitner, H., & Leutner, D. (1995). Learning strategies for unstructured hypermedia: A Framework for theory, research, and practice. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13 (4), 387-400.

Astleitner, H. (1997). Effects of external learning aids on learning with ill-structured hypertext. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17 (1), 322-355.

Azevedo, R, Ragan, S. Cromley, J. Pritchett, S. (2002). Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association (AERA) Conference, New Orleans.

Balcytiene, A. (1999). Exploring individual processes of knowledge construction with hypertext. Instructional Science, 27, 303-328.

Beasley, R.E., & Waugh, M.L. (1997). Predominant initial and review patterns of navigation in a fully constrained hypermedia hierarchy: An empirical study. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 6 (2), 155-172.

Burton, J.K., Moore, D.M., & Holmes, G.A. (1995). Hypermedia concepts and research: An overview. Computers in Human Behavior, 11 (3-4), 345-369.

Davidson-Shivers, G.V., Rasmussen, K.L., & Bratton-Jeffery, M.F. (!997a). Investigating learning strategies generation in a hypermedia environment using qualitative methods. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 8 (2-3), 247-261.

Davidson-Shivers, G.V., Shorter, L., Jordan, K., & Rasmussen, K.L. (1999b). Learning strategies and navigation decisions of children using a hypermedia lesson. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 8 (2), 175-188.

Hill, J.R., & Hannafin, M.J. (1997). Cognitive strategies and learning from the world wide Web. `Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (4), 37-64.

Gibbs, G.R. (1999). Learning how to learn using a virtual learning environment for philosophy. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 15 (3), 221-231.

Henry, M.J. (1995). Remedial math students' navigation patterns through hypermedia software. Computers in Human Behavior, 11 (3-4), 481-493.

Lidstone, J., & Lucas, K.B. (1998). Teaching and learning research methodology from interactive multimedia programs: Postgraduate students' engagement with an innovative program. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 7 (2-3), 237-261.

O'Hanlon, N. (1999). Web-based tutorials: does course use differ from general use? Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 10 (2), 217-228.

Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A., Garcia, T. & McKeachie, W.J. (1991) A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan

Pintrich, P. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boeka, P. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.) Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 452-494) CA: Academic Press.

Recker, M.M., & Pirolli, P. (1995). Modeling individual differences in students' learning strategies. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4 (1), 1-38.

Schroeder, E.E., & Grabowski, B.L. (1995). Patterns of exploration and learning with hypermedia. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13 (4), 313-335.

Schroeder, E.E., & Kenny, R.F. (1995). Learning strategies for interactive multimedia instruction: Applying linear and spatial note-taking. Canadian Journal of Educational Communication, 24 (1), 27-47.

Shapiro, A.M. (1998a). Promoting active learning: The role of system structure in learning form hypertext. Human-Computer Interaction, 13 (1), 1-35.

Shapiro, A.M. (1999b). The relevance of hierarchies to learning biology from hypertext. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8 (2), 215-243.

Shih, C-C., Ingebritsen, T., Pleasants, J., & Brown, G. (1998, August). Learning Strategies and other Factors Influencing Achievement via Web Courses. Paper presented at the proceedings of the Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison, WI.

Starr, R.M. (1997). Delivering instruction on the World Wide Web: Overview and basic design principles. Educational Technology, 37 (3), 7-14.

Wilhelm, J.D., Friedemann, P.D. & Erickson, J. (1998). Hyperlearning: where projects, inquiry, and technology meet. (pp. 18-20). York, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.

Zimmerman, B. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology 81(3), 329-343.

Zimmerman, B. (2002) Achieving academic excellence: A self-regulatory perspective. Ferrari (Ed). The pursuit of excellence through education. The educational series(pp. 85-110). Mahwah, NJ, US:Erlbaum.

David Kumrow, California State University Long Beach
Christina Vogt, University of Southern California
Edward John Kazlauskas, University of Southern California

Kumrow is an assistant professor in the School of Nursing and the Director of Technology in the Nursing Department. Dr. Vogt teaches courses in research writing and instructional technology. She oversees a web-based non-profit, GenderWatchers--a weekly global news service reporting on gender issues. Dr. Kazlauskas' areas of teaching, research and service include instructional use of computers, information and information systems, technology and facility planning, administrative computing, and training design.