The role of communication in student achievement.

Abstract

The primary focus of the institution of public education is student achievement. As a result, a significant amount of resources have been allocated to studying the student learning process. This paper continues to examine student achievement through a communicative lens and provides a literature review of the communication factors known to influence student learning. Factors such as immediacy, perceived caring, and communication apprehension in the teacher-student relationship are investigated. Suggestions for educating and training public school teachers about instructional communication are also included.

Introduction

The institution of public education has changed dramatically over the past several decades, as it has evolved, diversified, and specialized in an attempt to meet the expectations of numerous constituencies. More recently, curricula, teacher competencies, decentralization of school districts, and student achievement, among others, have become political issues in U.S. society; however, perhaps the most significant factor being investigated and scrutinized is student achievement. Special emphasis is given to student achievement because of its relationship to curricula and teacher competencies; a school system deficient in either of these areas is likely to produce students who are not prepared to meet the demands and needs of our society. At the state and institutional level, the ability to enhance curricula and develop teacher competencies that produce an increase in student achievement is based on effective communication between constituencies and organizations. In the public educational system, specifically the classroom, teachers must understand the communication process and how their personal communication may influence student achievement. Regardless of teaching pedagogy, philosophy, or classroom management style, effective communication is fundamental to the instructional process.

"Student achievement" is usually defined by a student's success in an academic discipline, an exhibited level of competency on some type of standardized test (e.g., SAT, ACT, state mandated exams), or grade point average. Additional identifiers of student achievement may include organizational participation, leadership activities, and behavior or conduct. For the purposes of this paper, student achievement is defined as an increase in academic development regarding student success in the classroom. Academic development is the demonstration of learning of subject content and process. There are several factors that have been linked to student achievement, ranging from parental involvement to students' emotional security, such as affluence of parents or the students' ability to effectively lead (Ryan & Cooper, 2000). This paper focuses specifically on the communicative aspects of learning and the influence communication has on student achievement. An examination of the communication factors immediacy, perceived caring, and communication apprehension as they pertain to student achievement will be explored. Finally, methods for educating teachers about instructional communication will be addressed.

Communication Factors Affecting Student Achievement

Several studies have been conducted to provide insight into the teacher-student communication relationship, in general, and what inspires or motivates a student to learn or to become interested in a topic, in particular. Bainbridge-Frymier and Houser (2000) noted the following variables as having a relationship to learning: immediacy, communicator style, affinity-seeking, compliance gaining, humor, and caring. Perhaps one of the variables that has attracted the most attention in the study of student achievement is teacher immediacy.

According to Gorham and Zakahi (1990), immediacy is defined as an action(s) that decreases the physical and/or psychological distance between individuals with respect to communication behavior. Baringer and McCroskey (2000) viewed immediacy as being produced by communicative behaviors that "enhance closeness to and nonverbal interaction with another" (p. 178). Teacher immediacy then is the communicative behaviors that a teacher employs to reduce the psychological and physical distance between students and themselves.

Immediacy communication behaviors consist of or involve verbal and nonverbal communication. Examples of teacher verbal immediacy behaviors include calling students by name, encouraging feedback, and soliciting student opinions. The use of humor, storytelling, and disclosure are other forms of verbal immediacy that Christensen and Menzel (1998) identified as effective teacher characteristics. Some examples of nonverbal teacher immediacy behaviors consist of direct eye contact, facial expressions (e.g., smiling, frowning), gestures, and tone of voice among others. Chory and McCroskey (1999), Christensen and Menzel (1998), Gorham and Zakahi (1990), and Kelley and Gorham (1988) each investigated the relationship between student achievement and teacher immediacy and found a positive relationship between these two variables. Teachers who were perceived by students to exercise immediacy promoted student learning. However, Christensen and Menzel (1998) noted a difference between nonverbal and verbal immediacy behaviors with nonverbal communication appearing to have a more significant effect on learning than verbal communication.

Immediacy enhances student learning from a number of perspectives (Gorham & Zakahi, 1990). First, immediacy behaviors are associated with the use of positive or encouraging feedback via verbal and nonverbal messages. Positive interaction creates a warm and open environment for learning that is free from negative or insulting teacher behavior(s) that usually lead to less student participation and involvement (Chory & McCroskey, 1999). Ryan and Cooper (2000) supported this finding and noted that a school environment that is "calm, safe, pleasant, and orderly is conducive to learning" (p. 92). Second, immediacy behaviors are closely linked to liking; that is individuals are drawn to people, objects, or things they find to be attractive. The liking of someone or something creates an interest that stimulates memory, recognition, and involvement. Interest and liking prompt a desire to please and heighten the awareness of the information to be studied and learned. Students who feel that a teacher uses immediacy behaviors are more likely to feel a relationship exists and it is built on liking, encouragement, and support (Kelley & Gorham, 1988). Therefore, students work harder to continue the development of the relationship.

According to Kelley and Gorham (1988), the two fundamental areas of investigation regarding teacher immediacy and student achievement are cognitive and affective learning. Student cognitive learning, the development of knowledge and thinking skills, is usually assessed via course grades that are determined by a number of factors such as attendance, participation, performance, and the student's motivation level. Each of these factors, of course, is based on a teacher's perception of a given student's behavior. Affective learning, the emotional attachment or influence the teacher has in the teacher-student relationship, is also of importance. Liking and motivation are associated with students' affective learning. Christenson and Menzel (1998) stated that teacher immediacy behaviors have been found to influence affective learning, which results in increased motivation that ultimately affects cognitive learning. In addition, affective learning is the catalyst for students' class attendance, participation, involvement, and study habits.

Immediacy effects have been examined with respect to the ethnic and cultural diversity of the teacher and various student populations as well. Just as immediacy behaviors vary individually, they also vary culturally and ethnically. Student and teacher ethnicity has been explored via a comparison of African-American and Euro-American teachers and their students' perception of their immediacy. Nueliep (1995) noted that student learning was positively affected by teacher immediacy, regardless of ethnicity; however, African-American teachers were perceived to be more immediate in the classroom than were Euro-American teachers. Additional research conducted cross-culturally by McCroskey, Sallinen, Fayer, Richmond, and Barraclough (1996) involving the United States, Finland, Australia, and Puerto Rico found a positive relationship between teacher immediacy and student achievement in each country. Each of these studies revealed that teacher immediacy positively influences students of various ethnic and cultural groups.

A second communication variable that has been researched is teacher perceived caring. Teven (2001) argued that "a vital requisite to effective teaching is establishing a climate of warmth, understanding, and caring within the classroom" (p. 159). Due to the nature of classroom instruction, length of time spent with students, issues of cultural and cognitive diversity, it is essential that teachers develop a caring atmosphere in which to work with their students. Students who feel that teachers care for them tend to achieve academically. Various behaviors have been identified that teachers use to communicate caring. One factor is communicator style (Norton, 1977), the way in which one communicates verbally and paraverbally with others. There are nine basic communicator styles consisting of: animated, attentive, contentious, dominant, dramatic, friendly, impression leaving, open, and relaxed. Sallinen-Kupariner (1992) reported that effective teachers demonstrate communicator styles that are attentive, friendly, impression leaving, and relaxed, whereas, ineffective teachers are low in animation, attentiveness, friendliness, and relaxation.

Verbal aggression, communication that attacks the self-concept of another, has also been examined in relation to perceived caring. Teven (2001) reported that verbal aggression has been researched in a number of contexts ranging from interpersonal to organizational communication settings; however, the exploration of instructional environments is a recent phenomenon. Research reveals that teachers who use verbal expressions to discourage students or who express dislike for their students are perceived to be less caring and, therefore, impede student achievement. In addition, perceived caring has been linked to nonverbal immediacy behaviors; specifically, teachers who utilize body movement, eye contact, gestures, smiling, and vocal expressiveness are perceived as caring. It appears that teachers, who have open and friendly communication styles, do not exhibit verbal aggressiveness, and use a variety of nonverbal immediacy behaviors are perceived as caring; in turn, these characteristics promote student achievement.

The first two communication factors discussed in this paper were related to teacher communication. In contrast, the third communication variable, communication apprehension, concerns student communication and is also linked to student achievement. McCroskey and Andersen (1976) defined communication apprehension as levels of anxiety or fear that impede an individual's communication effort. In the classroom setting, students may experience communication apprehension that renders them unable to express themselves. According to the researchers, at least 15-20 percent of all students suffer from communication apprehension. The fear of speaking to teachers or peers severely handicaps the student's learning because of a lack of interaction, inquiry, and feedback. These students are unable to participate in class or to reach out for assistance. Due to such limitations, students who suffer from communication apprehension are less likely to do well in the learning environment and receive lower grades for their lack of participation or interaction. Therefore, teachers should be aware of such disorders regarding communication so they can develop instructional strategies to promote success in the communication apprehensive population.

Chesebro (1992) conducted additional studies of communication apprehension regarding at-risk student populations in public schools. At-risk students were defined as students who were most likely to experience school failure due to one of the following factors: member of a single parent home, income less than $15,000 per year, home alone for more than 3 hours per day, parents with no high school diploma, or students' possessing limited English speaking skills. The research revealed that students at-risk had higher levels of communication apprehension in the classroom environment. The findings also suggested that at-risk students have low self perceptions and difficulty communicating in both dyads (person to person communication) and group settings (three or more people). In addition, several communication strategies were identified to assist students who experience communication apprehension. Some strategies consist of developing methods to improve communication skills (e.g., activities that promote public speaking or group communication), interpersonal skills (e.g., working in teams or dyads on class projects), and the psychomotor skills of verbal and nonverbal communication.

Developing Effective Instructional Communication Skills

The literature in this paper regarding classroom communication discussed teacher immediacy, teacher perceived caring, and student communication apprehension. Each of the studies relating to the aforementioned topics revealed that teachers should be knowledgeable about the communication process and how it effects student achievement. Although it is important for teachers to have effective communication skills (among many others), how can they obtain these skills in an already stringent and state specified curriculum required for teaching?

There are a number of ways in which communication education and training could be implemented and provided to teachers in various instructional settings. First, undergraduate and graduate education programs, preparing teachers for classroom instruction, could emphasize the importance of communication in methods courses or special topics classes. As a result, education professors could work with communication faculty members to jointly teach curriculum to future teachers. This would permit student-teachers to learn effective communication skills within a specific context (e.g., group assignments, instructional discussions, or lectures within their area of specialization). It would also continue to expose future educators to learning and teaching theories while jointly focusing on communication and the application of course content.

A second way to deliver communication information to student-teachers and teachers is through a specific communication course designed for educators. Although student-teachers/teachers typically take one communication course (usually public speaking), it is not specifically geared toward future educators. Therefore, a variety of important topics relevant to teaching is not available to them. For example, course content such as the communication process, group communication, interpersonal communication, message construction, and nonverbal communication is not included. Another topic worthy of teacher understanding is intercultural communication. Given the rapid increase of cultural and ethnic diversity in the public school system, teachers should be knowledgeable about how varying cultures can communicate and interact with one another more effectively, especially as it pertains to learning outcomes and student achievement.

A third strategy to educate teachers about the communication skills necessary for effective teaching could be provided through the use of in-service professional development seminars (McCroskey & Richmond, 1992). Classroom instructors can receive communication training on a continuous basis via lectures, seminars, and workshops. A heightened awareness of the delivery of content and the audience to be addressed, that of students, will provide a better understanding of the integration of communication skills and content to maximize student achievement. Research reveals that the amount of teaching experience does not affect the teacher's ability to monitor his or her communication behaviors (Gorham & Zakahi, 1990). Therefore, training and professional development may be implemented and provided at various times during the teacher's career.

Conclusion

Although some scholars in the field of education have been aware of the research regarding the relationship between communication and student achievement, little has been done by way of training or developing strategies to promote or emphasize the use of communication in the classroom. It is clear that communication plays a significant role in the learning environment and should be used in the most effective way. For maximum learning to occur, teachers must become aware of and use communication effectively. Therefore, teachers need to recognize the importance of the communication process in the social construction of knowledge, possess the theoretical underpinnings of the communication process, and demonstrate a working knowledge of effective communication so that students can achieve academically.

References

Bainbridge-Frymier, A., & Houser, M. L. (2000). The teacher-student relationship as an interpersonal relationship. Communication Education, 49, 207-219.

Baringer, D. K., & McCroskey, J. C. (2000). Immediacy in the classroom: Student immediacy. Communication Education, 49, 178-186.

Chesebro, J. (1992). Communication apprehension and self-perceived communication competence of at-risk students. Communication Education, 41, 345-360.

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McCroskey, J. C., Sallinen, A., Fayer, J. M., Richmond, V. P., & Barraclough, R. A. (1996). Nonverbal immediacy and cognitive learning: A cross-cultural investigation. Communication Education, 45, 200-211.

Neuliep, J. W. (1995). A comparison of teacher immediacy in African-American and Euro-American college classrooms. Communication Education, 44, 266-277.

Norton, R. (1977). Foundation of a communicator style construct. Human Communication Research, 4, 99-112.

Ryan, K., & Cooper, J. M. (2000). Those who can teach, teach (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Sallinen-Kupariner, A. (1992). Teacher communicator style. Communication Education, 41, 153-165.

Teven, J. J. (2001). The relationships among teacher characteristics and perceived caring. Communication Education, 50, 159-167.

Renee Robinson, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL

Robinson, PhD, is an assistant professor of organizational communication and communication theory in the Department of Communication.