The reporting and underreporting of rape.1. Introduction The underreporting of rape represents one of the most persistent Permanent. See persistent data, persistent name and persistent object. persistent - persistence patterns in law enforcement. The U.S. Department of Justice estimated that for the period 1994-1995 only about one-third of rape victims reported the crime to police, making rape the most underreported of all violent crimes. (1) From the perspective of the economic model of crime, underreporting of any crime weakens a vital link between crime and punishment Crime and Punishment (Russian: Преступление и наказание) is a novel by Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky, that was first published in the demonstrated in the seminal seminal /sem·i·nal/ (sem´i-n'l) pertaining to semen or to a seed. sem·i·nal adj. Of, relating to, containing, or conveying semen or seed. models of Becker Beck´er n. 1. (Zool.) A European fish (Pagellus centrodontus); the sea bream or braise. (1968) and Ehrlich Ehr·lich , Paul 1854-1915. German bacteriologist who conducted pioneering research in chemotherapy and developed the chemical Salvarsan as a treatment of syphilis. (1973). Reporting by victims reinforces the probability of detection The Probability of Detection is a term used in Radar sets. The radar system must detect, with greater than or equal to 80% probability at a definied range, a one square meter radar cross section. The received and demodulated echo signal is processed by a threshold logic. and the expected cost of illegal activity; these elements are critical to establishing a disincentive dis·in·cen·tive n. Something that prevents or discourages action; a deterrent. disincentive Noun something that discourages someone from behaving or acting in a particular way Noun 1. for individuals to commit crime. Underreporting reduces the probability of detection because it prevents law-enforcement officials from gaining information valuable, or even essential, in the apprehension The seizure and arrest of a person who is suspected of having committed a crime. A reasonable belief of the possibility of imminent injury or death at the hands of another that justifies a person acting in Self-Defense against the potential attack. of offenders. Ultimately, less apprehension means less restitution In the context of Criminal Law, state programs under which an offender is required, as a condition of his or her sentence, to repay money or donate services to the victim or society; with respect to maritime law, the restoration of articles lost by jettison, done when the for victims. Reporting by individuals also yields restitutional benefits for society as a whole and provides valuable information about the types and frequency of crimes that actually occur, which is important for the formation of efficient crime policy. To understand underreporting, we must understand reporting. A rape victim possesses a scarce resource: information about the crime. Thus, the decision to report, to allocate To reserve a resource such as memory or disk. See memory allocation. that information resource, is an economic decision. A victim who desires social support or legal justice has an incentive to tell others, including police, about the crime; a victim obtains neither by remaining silent. But rape victims who come forward incur To become subject to and liable for; to have liabilities imposed by act or operation of law. Expenses are incurred, for example, when the legal obligation to pay them arises. An individual incurs a liability when a money judgment is rendered against him or her by a court. real and unique costs. They lose their anonymity, risk retribution RETRIBUTION. 1. That which is given to another to recompense him for what has been received from him; as a rent for the hire of a house. 2. A salary paid to a person for his services. 3. The distribution of rewards and punishments. by the offender offender n. an accused defendant in a criminal case or one convicted of a crime. (See: defendant, accused) and stigmatization stigmatization /stig·ma·ti·za·tion/ (stig?mah-ti-za´shun) 1. the developing of or being identified as possessing one or more stigmata. 2. the act or process of negatively labelling or characterizing another. by people they know, and often must participate in an arduous ar·du·ous adj. 1. Demanding great effort or labor; difficult: "the arduous work of preparing a Dictionary of the English Language" Thomas Macaulay. 2. , sometimes openly hostile, legal process. These costs become particularly egregious e·gre·gious adj. Conspicuously bad or offensive. See Synonyms at flagrant. [From Latin for victims of rape, given the significant psychological trauma Psychological trauma is a type of damage to the psyche that occurs as a result of a traumatic event. When that trauma leads to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, damage can be measured in physical changes inside the brain and to brain chemistry, which affect the person's they often experience from the crime itself. On the other side, police investigators interested in apprehending rapists value such information but cannot obtain it without significant cost. Rape investigation, like any criminal investigation, requires an allocation The apportionment or designation of an item for a specific purpose or to a particular place. In the law of trusts, the allocation of cash dividends earned by a stock that makes up the principal of a trust for a beneficiary usually means that the dividends will be treated as of scarce police resources away from other enforcement activity and, of course, carries no guarantee of successful apprehension. (2) Because a rape victim tends to be the best and often the only witness to the crime other than the offender, investigators rely heavily on victims revealing information to them. But how investigators actually respond when presented with rape cases may well influence the extent to which current or future victims regard reporting as ultimately worth the cost. In an environment where rape victims and investigators interact Interact can refer to:
Fall of Interact While the Game Boy device was first released, Interact acquired the rights to sell Datel's Action Replay , chronic underreporting of rape implies (logic) implies - (=> or a thin right arrow) A binary Boolean function and logical connective. A => B is true unless A is true and B is false. The truth table is A B | A => B ----+------- F F | T F T | T T F | F T T | T It is surprising at first that A => that information revelation Revelation or Apocalypse (əpŏk`əlĭps), the last book of the New Testament. It was written c.A.D. 95 on Patmos Island off the coast of Asia Minor by an exile named John, in the wake of local persecution by the by victims systematically contributes insufficient in·suf·fi·cient adj. 1. Not sufficient. 2. Incapable of proper functioning. benefits, incurs excessive costs, or does both. The essential objective of this paper is to clarify (company) Clarify - A software vendor, specialising in Customer Relationship Management software. Nortel Networks sold Clarify to Amdocs in 2002. http://amdocsclarify.com/. the nature of those benefits and costs and how they influence the reporting decision. Section 2 discusses in greater detail the hypothetical Hypothetical is an adjective, meaning of or pertaining to a hypothesis. See:
adj. 1. Relying on or derived from observation or experiment. 2. Verifiable or provable by means of observation or experiment. 3. analysis. The remaining sections describe that analysis, which involves estimating the determinants of reporting and the selection of specific reasons for not reporting using dichotomous di·chot·o·mous adj. 1. Divided or dividing into two parts or classifications. 2. Characterized by dichotomy. di·chot and multinomial logit In statistics and economics, a multinomial logit model is a regression model which generalizes logistic regression to where can be more than two cases. Introduction models and a sample of rape victims extracted from the National Crime Survey (NCS (Network Call Signaling) CableLabs version of MGCP. See MGCP/MEGACO. NCS - Network Computing System: Apollo's RPC system used by DEC and Hewlett-Packard.The protocol has been adopted by OSF. ). 2. The Reporting Decision The Victim's Objective After a rape, the victim possesses critical information about the crime, some proportion of which she may decide to reveal to others. (3) In practice, a victim who reveals less than the entirety The whole, in contradistinction to a moiety or part only. When land is conveyed to Husband and Wife, they do not take by moieties, but both are seised of the entirety. of this information might inform police of the occurrence of the rape and some details but omit o·mit tr.v. o·mit·ted, o·mit·ting, o·mits 1. To fail to include or mention; leave out: omit a word. 2. a. To pass over; neglect. b. Received May 2005; accepted January January: see month. 2006. (1) Overall, as Rennison (2001) noted, violent crimes (rape, sexual assault, burglary burglary, at common law, the breaking and entering of a dwelling house of another at night with the intent to commit a felony, whether the intent is carried out or not. , robbery robbery, in law, felonious taking of property from a person against his will by threatening or committing force or violence. The injury or threat may be directed against the person robbed, his property, or the person or property of his relative or of anyone in his , simple and aggravated assault A person is guilty of aggravated assault if he or she attempts to cause serious bodily injury to another or causes such injury purposely, knowingly, or recklessly under circumstances manifesting extreme indifference to the value of human life; or attempts to cause or purposely or ) generally exhibit rates of reporting around 40-50%. Within this classification of crimes, robbery and aggravated assault victims typically report at the highest rates (ranging 50-60% historically), and rape victims report at the lowest rates. For additional detail, see Greenfeld (1997). (2) See Benson Benson may mean: Places in England:
orphan wanders streets of India with lama. [Br. Lit.: Kim] See : Adventurousness , and Rasmussen (1994) and Benson, Rasmussen, and Kim (1998) for more detailed discussions of police resource allocation resource allocation Managed care The constellation of activities and decisions which form the basis for prioritizing health care needs and the deterrence deterrence Military strategy whereby one power uses the threat of reprisal to preclude an attack from an adversary. The term largely refers to the basic strategy of the nuclear powers and the major alliance systems. of crime in the aggregate. (3) For ease of exposition exposition or exhibition, term frequently applied to an organized public fair or display of industrial and artistic productions, designed usually to promote trade and to reflect cultural progress. in this section, victims are described using feminine feminine /fem·i·nine/ (fem´i-nin) 1. pertaining to the female sex. 2. having qualities normally asociated with females. pronouns. However, the analysis applies to both male and female victims, and indeed the sample used for empirical analysis in this paper contains some male victims. A more formal, quantitative quantitative /quan·ti·ta·tive/ (kwahn´ti-ta?tiv) 1. denoting or expressing a quantity. 2. relating to the proportionate quantities or to the amount of the constituents of a compound. version of the analysis in this section is available from the author. W. David Allen Al·len , Edgar 1892-1943. American anatomist who is noted for his studies of hormones and for the discovery (1923) of estrogen. , Department of Economics & Finance, College of Administrative Science Administrative Science may refer to:
Huntsville, town (1991 pop. 14,997), SE Ont., Canada, on the Muskoka River. It has lumber mills and a woodworking plant, but it is sustained mainly by its year-round tourist trade. , Huntsville, AL 35899, USA; E-mail allend@email.uah.edu See .edu. (networking) edu - ("education") The top-level domain for educational establishments in the USA (and some other countries). E.g. "mit.edu". The UK equivalent is "ac.uk". . An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Southern Economic Association annual conference, New Orleans New Orleans (ôr`lēənz –lənz, ôrlēnz`), city (2006 pop. 187,525), coextensive with Orleans parish, SE La., between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, 107 mi (172 km) by water from the river mouth; founded , LA, November November: see month. 2002. The author acknowledges the helpful comments of Scott D. Bowdoin Bowdoin may refer to:
American anatomist who isolated four pituitary hormones and discovered vitamin E (1922). , Christine J. Kymn KYMN is an AM station operating on 1,000 watts in Minnesota. It is the first AM stereo station in the Midwest. External links
Table 1. Hospitals Using Hospitalists, by Employment Arrangement,
2003 and 2004
AHA 2003 AHA 2004
n % n %
Hospitals using hospitalists who are 1115 100 1366 100
Employed by a hospital or university 443 39.7 501 36.7
Employed by a physician group 281 25.2 376 27.5
Employed by a hospitalist-only group 311 27.9 386 28.3
Employed by another arrangements 80 7.2 103 7.5
Hospitals surveyed 4963 22.5 (b) 4873 28 (b)
Source: American Hospital Association (AHA) Annual Survey for fiscal
years 2003 and 2004 and authors' calculations.
(a) This category includes hospitalists employed by managed care
organizations and groups operating mixed models.
(b) This figure is the fraction of hospitals among all entities
surveyed that reported using hospitalists in the respective year.
Table 2. Hospitalist Groups, by Employment Arrangement, 2003
SHM 2003
n %
Hospitalist groups 298 100
Employed by a hospital or university 161 54.0
Employed by a physician group 53 17.8
Employed by a hospitalist-only group 71 23.8
Employed by another arrangement (a) 13 4.4
Source: 2003-2004 Survey by the Society of Hospital Medicine (SHM).
(a) This category includes hospitalists employed by managed care
organizations and groups operating mixed models.
Table 3. Equilibrium Employment Arrangements When the Physician Group
Has All the Bargaining Power (a)
Hospital
Physician Group FH < BH FH > BH
[F.sub.P] < [B.sub.P]
[F.sub.P] < (1 - [[beta].sub.P])[B.sub.P] (1,0) (1,0)
[F.sub.P] > (1 - [[beta].sub.P])[B.sub.P] (0,1)(1,0) (1,0)
[F.sub.P] > [B.sub.P]
[[beta].sub.P][B.sub.P] [greater (0,1) (0,0)
than or equal to] 0
[[beta].sub.P][B.sub.P] < 0 (0,0) (0,0)
(a) The number pairs in parentheses represent the equilibrium employment
choices by the physician group and the hospital, respectively. For
instance, (1,0) refers to an equilibrium in which only the physician
group decides to employ hospitalists.
Table 4. Equilibrium Employment Arrangements When the Hospital Has All
the Bargaining Power (a)
Hospital
[F.sub.H] < [B.sub.H]
[F.sub.H] < [F.sub.H] >
(1 - [[beta].sub.H]) (1 - [[beta].sub.H])
Physician Group [B.sub.H] [B.sub.H]
[F.sub.P] < [B.sub.P] (0,1) (1,0)(0,1)
[F.sub.P] > [B.sub.P] (0,1) (0,1)
Hospital
[F.sub.H] > [B.sub.H]
[F.sub.H] >
(1 - [[beta].sub.H])
Physician Group [B.sub.H]
[F.sub.P] < [B.sub.P] (1,0)
[F.sub.P] > [B.sub.P] (0,1)
(a) The number pairs in parentheses represent the equilibrium
employment choices by the physician group and the hospital,
respectively. For instance, (1,0) refers to an equilibrium in which
only the physician group decides to employ hospitalists. Note that
[[beta].sub.H][B.sub.H]BH < [B.sub.H] - [F.sub.H] is ruled out by
definition: [[beta].sub.H][B.sub.H] is assumed to be nonnegative.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Summary of Empirical Hypotheses
(Sample Size: 1052)
Standard
Mean Deviation
Dependent Variable
Victim Reported Rape 0.517 0.500
Hypothesis 1: Greater social-support availability increases
the probability of reporting
Measures of Social-Support Availability
Male Victim 0.074 0.262
Married Victim 0.197 0.398
Offender Was Stranger 0.568 0.496
Group Quarters Ratio (x100) 3.321 8.491
Divorced/Separated Ratio (x100) 9.038 6.383
Same-Domicile Ratio (x100) 48.274 13.645
Family Income (x1000) 7.889 3.847
Median Neighborhood Income (x1000) 9.738 3.143
Number of Injuries x No Medical Attention 0.381 0.680
Hypothesis 2: Greater ancillary evidence of rape increases
the probability of reporting.
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present 0.270 0.444
Number of Injuries 0.833 0.975
Lone Offender 0.798 0.401
Nonwhite Offender 0.379 0.485
Offender 21 or Older 0.678 0.468
Theft Occurred 0.137 0.344
No Weapon Present 0.638 0.481
Control Variables
Urban Victim 0.837 0.370
Nonwhite Victim 0.179 0.383
Victim Age: Teen 0.380 0.486
Victim Age: 20-29 0.400 0.490
Victim Age: 30-39 0.140 0.347
Victim Age: 40-49 0.035 0.184
Years of Education 14.264 6.161
Victim Employed when Rape Occurred 0.421 0.494
Table 2. Dichotomous Logit Results: The Probability of Reporting Rape
(Sample Size: 1052)
Standard
Coefficient (a) Error
Intercept 1.716 0.667
Measures of Social Support
Male Victim -0.143 0.064
Married Victim 0.046 0.045
Offender Was Stranger 0.092 0.036
Group Quarters Ratio (x100) -0.007 0.003
Divorced/Separated Ratio (x 100) -0.009 0.004
Same-Domicile Ratio (x100) -0.002 0.001
Family Income (x 1000) 0.002 0.005
Median Neighborhood Income
(x 1000) -0.004 0.007
Number of Injuries x No Medical
Attention -0.155 0.030
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and
Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present 0.005 0.039
Number of Injuries 0.143 0.023
Lone Offender 0.009 0.051
Nonwhite Offender 0.031 0.039
Offender 21 Or Older -0.014 0.044
Theft Occurred 0.228 0.048
No Weapon Present -0.068 0.037
Control Variables
Urban Victim 0.071 0.051
Nonwhite Victim -0.044 0.051
Victim Age: Teen -0.195 0.092
Victim Age: 20-29 -0.195 0.091
Victim Age: 30-39 -0.157 0.098
Victim Age: 40-49 -0.228 0.110
Years of Education -0.011 0.003
Victim Employed when Rape
Occurred -0.058 0.038
Trend 0.003 0.006
Chi square ([chi square]) 171.65
Significance
Level (p)
Intercept 0.010
Measures of Social Support
Male Victim 0.025
Married Victim 0.307
Offender Was Stranger 0.010
Group Quarters Ratio (x100) 0.009
Divorced/Separated Ratio (x 100) 0.011
Same-Domicile Ratio (x100) 0.179
Family Income (x 1000) 0.694
Median Neighborhood Income
(x 1000) 0.596
Number of Injuries x No Medical
Attention 0.000
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and
Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present 0.898
Number of Injuries 0.000
Lone Offender 0.853
Nonwhite Offender 0.434
Offender 21 Or Older 0.756
Theft Occurred 0.000
No Weapon Present 0.065
Control Variables
Urban Victim 0.163
Nonwhite Victim 0.385
Victim Age: Teen 0.033
Victim Age: 20-29 0.032
Victim Age: 30-39 0.109
Victim Age: 40-49 0.038
Years of Education 0.001
Victim Employed when Rape
Occurred 0.121
Trend 0.591
Chi square ([chi square]) 0.000
(a) The coefficient estimate is shown for the intercept; estimated
marginal effects are shown for the explanatory variables.
Table 3. Reasons Cited for Not Reporting Rape
Standard
Mean Deviation
Category 1: Nothing Could Be Done
(Insufficient Evidence) 0.168 0.428
Category 2: Police Would Not Want To Be Bothered 0.086 0.296
Category 3: Attack Was Private or Personal Matter 0.253 0.466
Category 4: Fear of Reprisal 0.144 0.160
Category 5: Told Someone Else, Not Police 0.111 0.314
Category 6: Not Important; Did Not Want To Get 0.238 0.426
Involved; Other, Unspecified Reasons
Sample Size 487
Table 4. Basic Multinomial Logit Results: Reasons for Not Reporting
Rape (Sample Size: 487)
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
Intercept (a) -0.839 2.386 1.807
(1.486) (1.757) (1.268)
Measures of Social Support
Male Victim 0.014 -0.036 0.141
(0.062) (0.033) (1.000)
Married Victim 0.087 -0.038 0.021
(0.055) (0.026) (0.065)
Offender Was 0.177 *** 0.024 -0.189 ***
Stranger (0.038) (0.025) (0.049)
Group Quarters -0.002 0.0005 -0.001
Ratio (x100) (0.002) (0.001) (0.003)
Same-Domicile -0.0002 -0.001 0.001
Ratio (x100) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002)
Family Income 0.004 -0.007 ** -0.002
(x1000) (0.005) (0.004) (0.007)
Number of Injuries 0.065 0.050 0.010
x No Medical (0.047) (0.039) (0.044)
Attention
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present -0.052 0.026 -0.07
(0.036) (0.030) (0.049)
Number of Injuries -0.071 * -0.055 0.062 *
(0.043) (0.037) (0.037)
Lone Offender -0.026 -0.009 0.009
(0.056) (0.040) (0.071)
Nonwhite Offender 0.031 0.032 -0.121 **
(0.041) (0.032) (0.056)
Offender 21 or Older 0.0003 0.009 -0.05
(0.046) (0.032) (0.065)
No Weapon Present 0.022 -0.011 0.044
(0.035) (0.028) (0.054)
Control Variables
Victim Younger than 0.046 -0.080 * -0.08
30 (0.040) (0.044) (0.063)
Trend -0.012 * -0.006 0.010
(0.006) (0.005) (0.008)
Chi square ([chi square]) 237.25 ***
Category 4 Category 5
Intercept (a) 2.943 * 0.905
(1.584) (1.668)
Measures of Social Support
Male Victim -0.102 *** -0.098 **
(0.030) (0.023)
Married Victim -0.125 *** -0.001
(0.026) (0.034)
Offender Was -0.129 *** 0.016
Stranger (0.034) (0.027)
Group Quarters 0.0002 0.001
Ratio (x100) (0.002) (0.001)
Same-Domicile -0.002 * -0.001
Ratio (x100) (0.001) (0.001)
Family Income 0.007 * 0.007 *
(x1000) (0.004) (0.004)
Number of Injuries 0.017 -0.126 ***
x No Medical (0.024) (0.030)
Attention
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present -0.027 0.028
(0.029) (0.033)
Number of Injuries 0.025 0.029 *
(0.022) (0.017)
Lone Offender -0.149 ** 0.031
(0.071) (0.035)
Nonwhite Offender 0.040 0.030
(0.039) (0.034)
Offender 21 or Older 0.087 *** -0.021
(0.031) (0.037)
No Weapon Present -0.078 * 0.015
(0.041) (0.030)
Control Variables
Victim Younger than 0.048 0.033
30 (0.031) (0.031)
Trend -0.004 -0.002
(0.005) (0.005)
Chi square ([chi square])
(a) The coefficient estimate is shown for the intercept; estimated
marginal effects are shown for the explanatory variables. Standard
errors appear in parentheses. The basic MNL model also included
variables not shown here because they were not significant
determinants of any of the dependent variable categories.
* Statistically significant at 10% level.
** Statistically significant at 5% level.
*** Statistically significant at 1% level.
Table 5. Refined Multinomial Logit Results: Reasons for Not Reporting
Rape (Sample Size: 487)
Category 1 Category 4
Intercept (a) -3.276 *** 0.365
(1.271) (1.356)
Measures of Social Support
Male Victim 0.030 -0.087 ***
(0.060) (0.027)
Married Victim 0.079 -0.109 ***
(0.049) (0.023)
Offender Was Stranger 0.155 *** -0.117 ***
(0.034) (0.031)
Group Quarters Ratio (x100) -0.002 0.00002
(0.002) (0.001)
Same-Domicile Ratio (x100) -0.0003 -0.002
(0.001) (0.001)
Family Income (x1000) 0.001 0.006
(0.004) (0.004)
Number of Injuries x No Medical 0.062 0.020
Attention (0.041) (0.021)
Evidentiary Determinants of Pursuit and Apprehension Probabilities
Other Victim Present -0.053 *** -0.023
(0.032) (0.026)
Number of Injuries -0.068 *** 0.014
(0.038) (0.018)
Lone Offender -0.029 -0.134 **
(0.051) (0.065)
Nonwhite Offender 0.022 0.035
(0.036) (0.035)
Offender 21 or Older 0.001 0.078 ***
(0.041) (0.027)
No Weapon Present 0.021 -0.069 *
(0.031) (0.037)
Control Variables
Victim Younger than 30 0.044 0.048 *
(0.034) (0.026)
Trend -0.010 * -0.003
(0.006) (0.004)
Chi square ([chi square]) 123.78 ***
(a) The coefficient estimate is shown for the intercept; estimated
marginal effects are shown for the explanatory variables. Standard
errors appear in parentheses. The basic MNL model also included
variables not shown that were not significant determinants of any
of the dependent variable categories.
* Statistically significant at 10% level.
** Statistically significant at 5% level.
*** Statistically significant at 1% level.
|
|
||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion