The relationship of attachment variables to career decision-making self-efficacy and fear of commitment.The present study indicated that both attachment bonds and self-rated attachment style were significantly related to fear of commitment and, to a lesser extent, career decision-making self-efficacy. Given previous research showing that fear of commitment is related to career indecisiveness and "floundering," the possible importance of attention to attachment bonds and styles in career counseling is suggested. The quality of parental and peer attachment has been found to be related to many indices of adaptive behavior Adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adapt to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to substitute an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. and functioning in college students and adults (e.g., Hinderlie & Kenny, 2002; Kenny & Perez, 1996; Lopez, 1995). With specific reference to career development, Blustein, Prezioso, and Schultheiss (1995) presented a strong theoretical rationale to explain why the experience of felt security provided by secure attachment relationships should facilitate exploration of the self and environment (Proposition 1, p. 425) and progress through career decision making and commitment processes (Proposition 2, p. 425). Several studies have examined the relationship of attachment constructs to variables reflecting the quality of the career decision process. Blustein, Walbridge, Freidlander, and Palladino (1991) reported that for women, attachment was related to greater commitment to a career decision and less to a tendency to prematurely foreclose fore·close v. fore·closed, fore·clos·ing, fore·clos·es v.tr. 1. a. To deprive (a mortgagor) of the right to redeem mortgaged property, as when payments have not been made. b. on a decision. For men, paternal PATERNAL. That which belongs to the father or comes from him: as, paternal power, paternal relation, paternal estate, paternal line. Vide Line. attachment was more important than maternal attachment, and greater attachment to fathers was related to greater commitment to a career decision, although not to a tendency to foreclose on a decision. Felsman and Blustein (1999) found that greater peer attachment and moderate attachment to mother, but not to father, were related to progress in committing to a career choice. O'Brien, Friedman, Tipton, and Linn linn n. Scots 1. A waterfall. 2. A steep ravine. [Scottish Gaelic linne, pool, waterfall.] (2000) found small relationships of parental attachment to career decision-making self-efficacy (Betz, Klein, & Taylor, 1996) in college women. The present study was designed to expand this knowledge base by examining the relationships of the quality of attachment bonds and attachment style to the career decision progress for college students. Career decision-making self-efficacy was the first index used because it has been shown to be a major indicator of adaptive career behavior in college students (Betz et al., 1996). One of the key aspects of progress in career decision making is willingness to explore the environment (requiring what Bandura ban`dur´a n. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 1977, called "approach behavior"), and self-efficacy is postulated pos·tu·late tr.v. pos·tu·lat·ed, pos·tu·lat·ing, pos·tu·lates 1. To make claim for; demand. 2. To assume or assert the truth, reality, or necessity of, especially as a basis of an argument. 3. to facilitate such exploratory behavior. As an additional index, we used a measure of career indecisiveness in·de·ci·sive adj. 1. Prone to or characterized by indecision; irresolute: an indecisive manager. 2. Inconclusive: an indecisive contest; an indecisive battle. , which has been distinguished by early career theorists from the construct of career indecision Indecision Buridan’s ass unable to decide between two haystacks, he would starve to death. [Fr. Philos.: Brewer Dictionary, 154] Cooke, Ebenezer his irresolution usually leads to catatonia. [Am. Lit. . Although career indecision has been viewed as a normal stage of development that most young adults resolve relatively easily with or without counseling or informational assistance (Fuqua & Hartman, 1983; Hartman, Fuqua, Blum, & Hartman, 1985), there is a subset A group of commands or functions that do not include all the capabilities of the original specification. Software or hardware components designed for the subset will also work with the original. of young people who have been called "achronically undecided" or indecisive in·de·ci·sive adj. 1. Prone to or characterized by indecision; irresolute: an indecisive manager. 2. Inconclusive: an indecisive contest; an indecisive battle. (Goodstein, 1965; Hartman et al., 1985). The Fear of Commitment Scale (FOCS FOCS Foundations Of Computer Science FOCS Fiber Optic Chemical Sensor (DecisionLink, Inc.) FOCS Fiber-Optics Cable System FOCS Flexible Operation and Control System (Coresma) ) was developed by Serling and Betz (1990) to measure the generalized gen·er·al·ized adj. 1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain. 2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized. 3. fear of making a career decision (i.e., career indecisiveness) as postulated by earlier writers. A higher level of fear of commitment was found to be related to anxiety, self-esteem, and career indecision (Serling & Betz, 1990) and also to "floundering," indicated by many changes of college major. Fear of commitment is essentially a paralysis paralysis or palsy (pôl`zē), complete loss or impairment of the ability to use voluntary muscles, usually as the result of a disorder of the nervous system. of the decisional process. Given attachment theory Attachment theory is a psychological theory that provides a descriptive and explanatory framework for discussion of affectionate relationships between human beings. Most of attachment theory as we know it today is derived from the work of John Bowlby and stresses the attitudes and researchers' strong emphasis on the inhibition of exploration and growth-oriented behaviors caused by insecure in·se·cure adj. 1. Lacking emotional stability; not well-adjusted. 2. Lacking self-confidence; plagued by anxiety. in attachment, possible relationships to career decision-making self-efficacy and fear of career commitment seem worthy of research attention. Method Participants The sample we used for this study comprised 304 undergraduate students enrolled in an undergraduate psychology course at a large midwestern university The P.A. Program is a 2-year program that starts in the summer. The D.O.,Pharm D., and Psy.D are 4-year programs. The D.O. degree is the legal and professional equivalent of the M.D. . Students received course credit for participating. The sample consisted of 190 women (62%) and 114 men (38%). The mean age of the participants was 19.6 years (SD = 2.6). The ethnic composition of the participants in the sample was 77% Caucasian, 10% Asian American A·sian A·mer·i·can also A·sian-A·mer·i·can n. A U.S. citizen or resident of Asian descent. See Usage Note at Amerasian. A , 9% African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , 2% Hispanic, 2% biracial bi·ra·cial adj. 1. Of, for, or consisting of members of two races. 2. Having parents of two different races. bi·ra or multiracial mul·ti·ra·cial adj. 1. Made up of, involving, or acting on behalf of various races: a multiracial society. 2. Having ancestors of several or various races. , and .7% who did not indicate ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic . Of the participants, 75% were freshmen, 14% sophomores, 8% juniors, and 2% seniors. Measures Parental attachments and friendship bonds. The revised version Revised Version n. A British and American revision of the King James Version of the Bible, completed in 1885. Revised Version Noun of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA IPPA Irish Professional Photographers Association (Dublin, Ireland, UK) IPPA Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association IPPA Internet Professional Publishers Association IPPA Iowa Pork Producers Association ; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) was used to measure the security of parental attachments and friendship bonds. This 75-item measure comprises three separate 25-item scales developed to measure the quality of maternal, paternal, and friendship bonds. Each scale contains items assessing trust ("My mother (father) trusts my judgement"), quality of communication ("I tell my parents or friends about my problems and troubles"), and alienation alienation, in property laws: see tenure. alienation In the social sciences context, the state of feeling estranged or separated from one's milieu, work, products of work, or self. ("My mother (father) has her own problems so I don't bother her with mine"). Participants respond to items using a 5-point Likert-style format that ranges from almost never or never true (1) to almost always or always true (5). Various studies support the reliability and validity of the scales of the IPPA (see Armsden & Greenberg, 1987; Lopez & Gover, 1993). Attachment style. The Relationship Questionnaire (RQ; Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) is a measure of adult relational orientation (attachment style) based on a four-category system derived from Bowlby's (1988) concepts of internal working models of the self and others that form the basis of the development of attachment styles. The RQ contains four descriptive paragraphs that describe the secure, dismissive dis·mis·sive adj. 1. Serving to dismiss. 2. Showing indifference or disregard: a dismissive shrug. Adj. 1. , preoccupied pre·oc·cu·pied adj. 1. a. Absorbed in thought; engrossed. b. Excessively concerned with something; distracted. 2. Formerly or already occupied. 3. , and fearful attachment styles. Examples of statements in the paragraphs are "It is easy for me to become emotionally close to others" (secure); "I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like" (preoccupied); "I worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others" (fearful); and "It is very important to me to feel independent and self-sufficient, and I prefer not to depend on others or have others depend on me" (dismissive). For each paragraph, participants were asked to provide a Likert rating on a 5-point scale ranging from not at all like me (1) to very much like me (5). The four-paragraph self-report RQ seems to relate meaningfully to a structured attachment interview and also to friends' reports of individuals' attachment styles (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994). Career decision-making self-efficacy. This construct was measured by the short form of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale (CDMSE-SF; Betz et al., 1996). Scale construction used tasks reflecting the five career choice competencies in Crites's (1978) model of career maturity: accurate self-appraisal, gathering occupational information, goal selection, making plans for the future, and problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. . The CDMSE-SF consists of a total of 25 items to which participants respond on a 5-level confidence continuum, ranging from no confidence at all (1) to complete confidence (5). Confidence scores are summed across all 25 items, and higher scores are indicative of higher levels of career decision-making self-efficacy. Betz et al. (1996) reported that the internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability of the 25-item total score was .94. There is extensive evidence for criterion-related and construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. (e.g., Betz et al., 1996; Gloria & Hird, 1999). Career indecisiveness. The FOCS (Serling & Betz, 1990) was designed to examine the chronic indecisiveness element of decisional difficulties rather than indecision based on lack of information. Participants respond to the 40 items using a 6-point Likert scale Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc , ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). Higher scores on the total scale indicate higher levels of fear of commitment. Examples of items are the following: "Once I make a major decision, I feel as if I cannot change my mind"; "My friends tell me I have trouble making decisions"; and "I worry that I won't find the best major for me." Serling and Betz (1990) reported internal consistency coefficients of .91 and .93 in two separate trials. Results Correlations among all the variables examined in the current study were obtained and are shown in Table 1. Correlations are shown separately for men and women. Career decision-making self-efficacy was positively related to both maternal and peer attachment and also to the secure attachment style among women. Career decision-making self-efficacy showed a small but significant negative relationship to the fearful attachment style among men. Fear of commitment, where higher scores indicate more decisional difficulty, was significantly negatively related to maternal and peer attachment among women and to peer attachment among men. Fear of commitment was also significantly negatively related to the secure style and positively related to the fearful and preoccupied styles, with the Pearson product-moment correlation between the fearful style and fear of commitment equal to .48 for men. Table 2 provides the results of hierarchical multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analyses for the prediction of career decision-making self-efficacy and fear of commitment. Maternal, paternal, and peer attachment, as well as each attachment style separately, were the predictors in the equations. Maternal and paternal attachments were entered on Step 1 in order to be consistent with the literature that has primarily focused on the relationship between parental relationships and career variables (Kenny & Rice, 1995). Peer attachment was entered on Step 2. The four attachment style scores were entered on Step 3 separately, resulting in four different equations for each of the two career variables. Parental attachment alone was a significant predictor of career decision-making self-efficacy, and peer attachment added significantly to the variance accounted for. Significant additional variance was added by the construct dismissive style, but even with this addition the total equation accounted for only 8% of the variance. In contrast, parental and peer attachment accounted for 11% of the variance in fear of commitment, with the secure, fearful, and preoccupied styles (although not the dismissive style) accounting for significant incremental Additional or increased growth, bulk, quantity, number, or value; enlarged. Incremental cost is additional or increased cost of an item or service apart from its actual cost. variance, ranging from a total of 14% variance accounted for when the secure style was added to 17% when the fearful style was added. Beta weights were statistically significant and negative for parental and peer attachment and for the secure attachment style (showing that higher levels were related to less fear of commitment). Weights were positive for the fearful and preoccupied styles; that is, more fear of commitment was related to higher self-ratings on the fearful and preoccupied styles. Discussion Both career decision-making self-efficacy and career indecisiveness (fear of commitment) were related to the quality of parental and peer attachment bonds, although relationships were stronger for fear of commitment. The career variables were also related to attachment styles: Career decision-making self-efficacy was negatively related to the dismissive style, and fear of commitment was positively related to the secure style and negatively related to the fearful and preoccupied styles. These findings support and extend the suggestions of other researchers (e.g., Blustein et al., 1995; Felsmen & Blustein, 1999; O'Brien et al., 2000) regarding the utility of applying attachment theory concepts to career development, in general, and to career-related self-efficacy, in particular. Although we used only one domain of career-related behavior (i.e., career decision-making self-efficacy), there was some evidence linking secure attachment to higher self-efficacy. Fear of commitment, itself moderately correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with career decision-making self-efficacy, was more strongly related to attachment variables. Parental and peer attachment explained 11% of the variance in fear of commitment, while styles explained an additional 3%, 4%, or 6% in the case of the secure, preoccupied, and fearful styles, respectively. The Pearson product-moment correlation of .48 between fear of commitment and the fearful attachment style in men was the largest correlation in absolute magnitude absolute magnitude: see magnitude. between the attachment and career development variables. Because fear of commitment has not been previously studied relative to attachment styles and behaviors, this represents a new finding in the literature. Previous research has suggested that fear of commitment is related to an excessive number of major changes or "floundering" (Betz & Serling, 1993). Thus, these findings suggest that individuals with less well developed bonds or who have fearful or preoccupied attachment styles may be especially vulnerable to chronic indecisiveness. For career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action , the present findings suggest that discussion of attachment bonds and assessment of attachment styles using a short instrument like the RQ might be useful as part of career counseling. The relationships of maternal and peer attachment to career decision-making self-efficacy and of (lack of) fear of commitment and of the fearful and preoccupied styles to the presence of fear of commitment may be diagnostically useful. For students with insecure attachments, counseling interventions focused on these personal issues prior to information-focused career counseling is strongly suggested. More generally, students who are low in career decision-making self-efficacy or floundering in their attempts to make and persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move" continue educational and/or career choices may need interventions that focus on building their self-efficacy, or confidence, with respect to self- and environmental exploration. Bandura's (1997, 1997) sources of efficacy information, that is, performance accomplishments, modeling, anxiety management, and social persuasion PERSUASION. The act of influencing by expostulation or request. While the persuasion is confined within those limits which leave the mind free, it may be used to induce another to make his will, or even to make it in his own favor; but if such persuasion should so far operate on the mind and encouragement (most readily available directly from the counselor) may be an effective component of a counseling intervention focused on building this confidence.
TABLE 1
Correlations Among Attachment Bonds and Styles and Career
Decision-Making Self-Efficacy and Fear of Commitment
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Maternal - .36 .35 .11 -.15 -.20 -.12 .18 -.16
2. Paternal .32 - .18 .26 -.20 -.11 -.20 .16 -.16
3. Peer .21 .18 - .24 -.27 -.07 -.14 .28 -.31
4. Secure .30 .20 .31 - -.42 -.12 -.11 .12 -.21
5. Fearful -.14 -.11 -.30 -.48 - .26 .30 -.18 .48
6. Preoccupied -.13 -.15 -.18 .04 .17 - .00 -.13 .26
7. Dismissive -.02 .03 -.18 -.18 .20 -.18 - .05 .17
8. Career .18 .02 .21 .21 -.10 -.08 .10 - -.54
Decision-
Making
Self-Efficacy
9. Fear of -.27 -.12 -.35 -.29 .25 .29 .01 -.52 -
Commitment
Note. Correlations in the upper diagonal are for men (n = 114); values
of .19, .24, and .29 are significant at p [less than or equal to] .05,
.01, and .001. Values in the lower diagonal are for women (n = 190);
values of .14, .18, and .22 are significant at the .05, .01, and .001
levels.
TABLE 2
Results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Using Attachment
Bonds and Styles to Predict Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy and
Fear of Commitment
Dependent Variable [R.sup.2] F [DELTA][R.sup.2]
Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy
Regression 1
1. Maternal .03 4.6 * .03
Paternal
2. Peer .06 .03
3. Secure Style .07 .01
Regression 2
3. Fearful Style .07 .01
Regression 3
3. Preoccupied
Style .07 .01
Regression 4
3. Dismissive Style .08 .02
Fear of Commitment
Regression 1
1. Maternal .05 7.8 *** .05
Paternal
2. Peer .11 .06
3. Secure Style .14 .03
Regression 2
3. Fearful Style .17 .06
Regression 3
3. Preoccupied
Style .15 .04
Regression 4
3. Dismissive Style .11 .00
Dependent Variable [DELTA]F B t
Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy
Regression 1
1. Maternal 4.6 * .10 1.6
Paternal -.02 -0.3
2. Peer 11.0 *** .17 2.9 **
3. Secure Style 3.4 .11 1.8
Regression 2
3. Fearful Style 1.16 -.06 -1.1
Regression 3
3. Preoccupied
Style 0.62 -.05 -0.79
Regression 4
3. Dismissive Style 5.2 * .13 2.3 *
Fear of Commitment
Regression 1
1. Maternal 7.8 *** -.10 -1.7
Paternal .01 -0.19
2. Peer 21.1 *** -.23 -3.9 ***
3. Secure Style 9.3 ** -.17 -3.0 **
Regression 2
3. Fearful Style 22.2 *** .26 4.7 ***
Regression 3
3. Preoccupied
Style 13.6 *** .20 3.7 ***
Regression 4
3. Dismissive Style .00 .00 0.09
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
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It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Freeman. Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 61, 226-244. Betz, N. E., Klein, K. A., & Taylor, K. M. (1996). Evaluation of a short form of the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale. Journal of Career Assessment, 4, 47-57. Betz, N. E., & Serling, D. A. (1993). Construct validity of fear of commitment as an indicator of career indecisiveness. Journal of Career Assessment, 1, 21-34. Blustein, D. L., Prezioso, M. S., & Schultheiss, D. P. (1995). 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Differential diagnosis differential diagnosis n. Determination of which one of two or more diseases with similar symptoms is the one from which the patient is suffering. Also called differentiation. and treatment of career indecision. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 62, 27-29. Gloria, A. M., & Hird, J. S. (1999). Influences of ethnic and nonethnic variables on the career decision-making self-efficacy of college students. The Career Development Quarterly, 48, 157-174. Goodstein, L. D. (1965). Behavior theoretical views of counseling. In B. Stefflre (Ed.), Theories of counseling (pp. 140-192). New York: McGraw Hill. Griffin, D., & Bartholomew, K. (1994). Models of self and other: Fundamental dimensions underlying measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 430-445. Hartman, B. W., Fuqua, D. R., Blum, C. R., & Hartman, P. T. (1985). A study of the predictive validity In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a scale predicts scores on some criterion measure. For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings. of the Career Decision Scale in identifying longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. patterns of career indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 27, 202-209. Hinderlie, H. H., & Kenny, M. (2002). Attachment, social support, and college adjustment among Black students at predominantly White universities. Journal of College Student Development Journal of College Student Development is an academic journal founded in 1959 and is the official publication of the American College Personnel Association. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide variety of academic fields related to college , 43, 327-340. Kenny, M. E., & Perez, V. (1996). Attachment and psychological well-being among racially and ethnically diverse first-year college students. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 527-535. Kenny, M. E., & Rice, K. G. (1995). Attachment to parents and adjustment in late adolescent college students: Current status, applications, and future considerations. The Counseling Psychologist, 23, 433-456. Lopez, F. G. (1995). Contemporary attachment theory: An introduction with implications for counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 23, 395-415. Lopez, F. G., & Gover, M. R. (1993). Self-report measures of parent-adolescent attachment and separation individuation individuation Determination that an individual identified in one way is numerically identical with or distinct from an individual identified in another way (e.g., Venus, known as “the morning star” in the morning and “the evening star” in the : A selective review. Journal of Counseling & Development, 71, 560-569. O'Brien, K. M., Friedman, S. M., Tipton, L. C., & Linn, S. G. (2000). Attachment, separation, and women's vocational development: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 301-315. Serling, D. A., & Betz, N. E. (1990). Development and evaluation of a measure of fear of commitment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 91-97. Jessica B. Wolfe and Nancy E. Betz, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University Ohio State University, main campus at Columbus; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1870, opened 1873 as Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, renamed 1878. There are also campuses at Lima, Mansfield, Marion, and Newark. . Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nancy E. Betz, Department of Psychology, 137 Townshend Hall, 1885 Neil Avenue, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 (e-mail: betz.3@osu.edu). |
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