The relationship between spiritual meaning and purpose and drug and alcohol use among college students.Abstract: While spirituality is one of the primary constructs of health, little research has studied the relationship between spirituality and health related behavior. This investigation examined the relationship between spiritual meaning and purpose and the use of alcohol and drugs. A sample of 606 undergraduate students were surveyed using an amended version of the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey and Pargament's Spiritual Meaning Scale. Results of this study show negative correlations Noun 1. negative correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with small values of the other; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and -1 indirect correlation between spiritual meaning and purpose scores and the use of alcohol and drugs. Students with a higher Spiritual Meaning score were significantly less likely to use marijuana marijuana or marihuana, drug obtained from the flowering tops, stems, and leaves of the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa (see hemp) or C. indica; the latter species can withstand colder climates. , drink alcohol, and participate in binge drinking binge drinking An early phase of chronic alcoholism, characterized by episodic 'flirtation' with the bottle by binges of drinking to the point of stupor, followed by periods of abstinence; BD is accompanied by alcoholic ketoacidosis–accelerated lipolysis and . An individual's spiritual beliefs appear to have a buffering effect on alcohol and drug use. Results of this study suggest that health education programming that provides students opportunities for spiritual growth and exploration may be a useful tool in the prevention of drug and alcohol use by college students. ********** Spiritual health has long been considered an integral component of holistic health holistic health, n a concept in which concern for health requires a perspective of the individual as an integrated system rather than as a collection of parts and functions. and wellness. Spirituality and its impact on health and health behavior have become of interest during the last twenty years TWENTY YEARS. The lapse of twenty years raises a presumption of certain facts, and after such a time, the party against whom the presumption has been raised, will be required to prove a negative to establish his rights. 2. (Banks, Poehler, & Russell, 1984; Bensley, 1991; Boland, 1998; Cavendish et al., 2000; Dennis, Muller Mul·ler , Hermann Joseph 1890-1967. American geneticist. He won a 1946 Nobel Prize for the study of the hereditary effect of x-rays on genes. Mül·ler , Johannes Peter 1801-1858. , Miller, & Panerjee, 2004; Doswell, Kouyate, & Taylor, 2003; Holder et al., 2000). Little research has explored the relationship between an individual's spiritual beliefs and his/her drug and/or alcohol use behavior. Drug and alcohol use continues to be a major concern across college campuses (Douglas et al., 1997, Wechsler & Kuo, 2000). The American College American College is the name of:
Specifically, unprotected sex . In addition, 8% of college students indicated their alcohol use has been a major impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract. Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. to their academic performance. Alcohol use has been identified as a contributing factor in two-thirds of suicides, 90% of rapes, and 95% of violent crimes among college students. In addition, alcohol and drug use can have a significant impact on college class attendance and performance (Douglas et al., 1997, Wechsler & Kuo, 2000). SPIRITUALITY While the terms "spirituality" and "spiritual health" are frequently used, no commonly accepted definition exists for these terms (Jose &Taylor, 1986; Perrin & McDermott, 1997). In general, spirituality has been defined as connectedness with self, fellow human beings, nature, or a higher power Higher power is a term used in a 12-step program, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, to describe "a power greater than yourself." Although many participants equate their higher power with God, a belief in God or in formal religion is not mandatory; the higher power is intended as a (Banks et al., 1984; Bellingham, Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , & Jones, 1989; Bensley, 1991; Perrin & McDermott, 1997, Doswell et al, 2003), the ability to transcend daily life and struggle (Berggren-Thomas & Griggs, 1995; Burkhardt, 1989; O'Brien, 1982, Doswell et al, 2003), and a search for meaning and purpose in life (Banks et al., 1984; Bazan & Dyer, 1998; Benjamin & Looby, 1998; Doswell et al. 2003). Despite the identification of spirituality as a component of health, few research studies have explored the impact of one's spiritual beliefs on health-related behavior. Most of the existing studies examining the role of spirituality and health have focused on terminally ill Terminally Ill When a person is not expected to live more than 12 months. Notes: Any gifts given out by the afflicted person at this time may be considered as a dispersion of the estate rather than a gift. and/or chronically ill individuals; these studies reported individuals who expressed strong spiritual beliefs indicated they had a higher quality of life, and adapted better to their illness or disability (Gioella, Berkman, & Roninson, 1998; Fryback & Reinert, 1999; Kaczorowiski, 1988; Gall, 2000; Do Rozario, 1997; Rowe, Michelle, & Ricahrd, 2004). Carson, Soeken, Shanty shanty, in music: see chantey. , and Terry (1990) found that spiritual well-being spiritual well-being, n a sense of peace and contentment stemming from an individual's relationship with the spiritual aspects of life. was related to hope in individuals with chronic disease. With regard to drug and alcohol abuse, Green, Thompson, and Fullilove (1998) found that having a spiritual awakening can lead to sustained abstinence abstinence: see fasting; temperance movements. in alcohol and drug users. In addition, Holder and colleagues (2000) found that a high level of spiritual interconnectedness interconnectedness (inˈ·ter·k was associated with a lower level of voluntary sexual activity among adolescents. Most recently, Stewart (2001) surveyed 337 college students using the CORE Alcohol and Drug Survey and several supplemental questions focusing on spiritual beliefs. A student's spirituality beliefs were found to have a moderate buffering effect on the decision to use alcohol and binge drink among college students. In a similar study, Hammermeister and Peterson (2001) surveyed 462 college students using the Spiritual Wellbeing Scale and selected questions about drug and alcohol use. The results of this study revealed the students who had a higher level of spiritual well-being were less likely to report using drugs and alcohol. These studies suggest that ones spiritual beliefs have an influence on their health-related behaviors. However more research is needed to examine such relationships. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between spiritual meaning and purpose and alcohol and drug use behaviors among undergraduate students. Results of this study may be useful to health educators who are developing interventions focused on college student drinking behaviors. METHODS PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING A sample of 606 undergraduate students attending a regional comprehensive university in the southern US was utilized for this study. Initially, instructors teaching large undergraduate courses drawing multiple majors were contacted and asked for permission to survey their classes. Once permission was granted, student volunteers were sought during class meetings. Students were informed that they could elect not to participate in the study, and were assured of anonymity. Students completed the survey in approximately 15 minutes. The sample represented 4.7% of the undergraduate population of the university during the semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s during which data were collected. Most participants (92.7%) were between 18 and 28 years of age (mean = 21.42, SD = 4.37 years). Demographic characteristics of the sample paralleled those of the university (see Table 1). INSTRUMENTS The National College Health Risk Behavior Survey (NCHRBS) was adapted from the high school Youth Risk Behavior Survey The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) is a biannual survey of adolescent health risk and health protective behaviors such as smoking, drinking, drug use, diet, and physical activity conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (YRBS YRBS Youth Risk Behavior Survey ) by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. to measure six high-risk behaviors high-risk behavior Public health A lifestyle activity that places a person at ↑ risk of suffering a particular condition. See Safe sex practices. among college students. These behaviors include: tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use, behaviors that contribute to unintentional and intentional injuries, sexual behaviors sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases Sexually transmitted diseases Infections that are acquired and transmitted by sexual contact. Although virtually any infection may be transmitted during intimate contact, the term sexually transmitted disease is restricted to conditions that are largely , unhealthy dietary behaviors, and physical inactivity physical inactivity A sedentary state. Cf Physical activity. . The YRBS was previously shown to have content validity content validity, n the degree to which an experiment or measurement actually reflects the variable it has been designed to measure. and test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument (Bremer, Collins, Kann, & Warren, 1995; CDC See Control Data, century date change and Back Orifice. CDC - Control Data Corporation , 1990). Drug and alcohol items of the NCHRBS were utilized for this study. This portion of the survey consists of 29 questions that address the use of tobacco, alcohol, and other illicit drugs illicit drug Street drug, see there including cocaine and hallucinogens. In addition, the researchers added 4 questions focusing on the use of MDMA MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. MDMA n. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine; a mescaline analog. MDMA 3,4 methylenedioxy-methamphetamine. See Ecstasy. (ecstasy ecstasy, either of two drugs used for their euphoric effects. The original ecstasy, a so-called designer drug, also known as MDMA, is an analog of methamphetamine (see amphetamine). ) and GHB GHB abbr. gamma-hydroxybutyrate GHB 1 Gamma-hydroxybutyrate, γ-hydroxy-butyrate See GABA 2 Glycosylated hemoglobin, see there GHb Glycosylated hemoglobin, see there , these being contemporary drugs not addressed in the NCHRBS items. Survey questions focused on the age of first use of substances, frequency of lifetime use, as well use during the last 30 days. Alcohol use items also inquired about binge drinking (5 or more drinks in one sitting), drinking and driving, and frequency of riding with a driver who had been drinking. Spirituality was assessed using Pargament's (1999) Meaning Scale (PMS (Pantone Matching System) A color matching system that has a unique number assigned to more than 500 different colors and shades. This standard for the printing industry has been built into many graphics and desktop publishing programs to ensure color accuracy. ) available from the Fetzer Institute. This scale consists of 20 statements focusing on religious and spiritual meaning (see Table 2). The survey attempts to measure the theoretical concept of meaning and purpose growing from the work of psychiatrist Viktor Frankl Viktor Emil Frankl, M.D., Ph.D., (March 26, 1905 - September 2, 1997) was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist as well as a Holocaust survivor. Frankl was the founder of logotherapy and Existential Analysis, the "Third Viennese School" of psychotherapy. . The responses follow a 5-point Likert format, indicating the extent to which the participant agrees or disagrees with each statement. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS descriptive statistics see statistics. OF SUBSTANCE USE BEHAVIORS Descriptive statistics of selected substance use behaviors were calculated for the sample, and these compared to national averages from the 1995 NCHRBS data (Douglas et al., 1997). The percent of participants in this study who engaged in substance use behaviors was slightly higher than from the national data. Of the participants in the study, 38% smoked cigarettes in the last 30 days, compared to 29% from the 1995 NCHRBS data. Seventy-two percent consumed alcohol in the last 30 days, compared to 68% nationally. Twenty-one percent of participants in this study smoked marijuana in the last 30 days; 14% nationally reported doing so. Eighteen percent of the participants in this study indicated using cocaine at least once in their lifetime; 14% did so nationally. Finally, 27% of this study's participants indicated using MDMA at least once in their lifetime, 9% in the last 30 days; and 14% indicated using GHB at least once in their lifetime, 3% in the last 30 days. No national comparison data are available for these two substances as the NCYRBS does not include items addressing them. CALCULATION OF SPIRITUALITY SCORE Responses to the PMS were subjected to a principal components factor analysis that revealed only one factor with an eigenvalue eigenvalue In mathematical analysis, one of a set of discrete values of a parameter, k, in an equation of the form Lx = kx. Such characteristic equations are particularly useful in solving differential equations, integral equations, and systems of greater than 1.0 (actual eigenvalue = 12.88), accounting for 64% of the total variance in responses. Factor loadings indicated 19 of the 20 items loaded on this single factor; the criterion of .40 was used as the threshold level Noun 1. threshold level - the intensity level that is just barely perceptible intensity, intensity level, strength - the amount of energy transmitted (as by acoustic or electromagnetic radiation); "he adjusted the intensity of the sound"; "they measured the for factor loading. The internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. of the scale (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. = .97) indicated strong reliability. Items
from the PMS, and their associated factor loadings are provided in Table
1. A spiritual meaning score was calculated for each participant by
averaging his/her responses to these 19 items. Spirituality Scores had a
possible range of 1 to 5. The mean (SD) Spirituality Score for the
sample was 3.83 (0.79).RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUALITY AND SUBSTANCE USE BEHAVIORS To examine the relationship between spirituality and substance use behaviors, Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficients Correlation Coefficient A measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated. The correlation coefficient is calculated as: were computed between individual's Spirituality Score and numerical responses to survey items indicating lifetime engagement in substance use behaviors and that during the last 30 days (see Table 3). All of the resultant correlations were negative, indicating participants with higher Spirituality Scores engaged in these substance use behaviors less often, and most were significant. The strongest relationships were observed between spirituality and lifetime marijuana use, and alcohol consumption and binge drinking in the last 30 days. While most relationships were statistically significant, all were small to moderate in size, and accounted for less than 10% of the variance among scores. The relatively modest relationships were due, in part, to distributions skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data in the direction of lower engagement in these behaviors. That is, more participants indicated engaging in these substance use behaviors less often, and fewer participants indicated frequent engagement. In addition, the categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional. A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding. Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. nature of responses to survey items may have tended to reduce sensitivity. We considered it logical to suggest that individuals with stronger spirituality beliefs would refrain from ever using certain substances, particularly those that are illegal. If this suggestion were true, then a difference would be observed when comparing the Spirituality Scores of individuals who had never engaged in illegal substance use behaviors during their lifetime to those who had used a substance at least once. To examine this prediction, we divided participants accordingly relative to the use of marijuana, cocaine, MDMA, and GHB. These groups' Spirituality Scores were then compared using independent t-tests. To control for the inflation of experiment-wise Type I error, the alpha level typically used when making group comparisons (.05) was divided by the number of comparisons conducted (4), and a conservative p-value of .01 used as the criterion for statistical significance. As shown in Table 4, for each illegal substance investigated in this study, the average Spirituality Score of individuals who had never used it was significantly higher than those who had used it even once during their lifetime. Effect size (ES) was calculated for each comparison as an indicator of the size of the difference (see Table 4). These were moderate in size, indicating Spirituality Scores of non-users was one-third to one-half of one standard deviation In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. unit higher than that of individuals who had used an illegal substance. DISCUSSION Spirituality is considered one of the primary constructs of health. However health research seldom examines the spiritual dimension. The limited evidence that exists suggests that spirituality may play an influential role in health related behavioral choices and beliefs. This study focused on the role between spirituality and alcohol and drug use among college students. Existing evidence has reported that religion or spirituality may be protective factors against alcohol and drug use (Green et al., 1998; Hammermeister & Peterson, 2001; Stewart, 2001; Templin & Martin, 1999; Turner & Willis, 1979). The results of this study are consistent with previous findings exploring the impact of spiritual beliefs on alcohol and drug use. In this study, negative correlations were found between scores reflecting ones level of spiritual meaning and purpose in life, and the use of alcohol and drugs. In addition, students who reported no use of illegal drugs in their lifetime had a higher spirituality score than those who had engaged in such. These results suggest an individual's spiritual beliefs appear to have a buffering effect on alcohol and drug use. Spirituality and religiosity re·li·gi·os·i·ty n. 1. The quality of being religious. 2. Excessive or affected piety. Noun 1. religiosity - exaggerated or affected piety and religious zeal religiousism, pietism, religionism are typically thought to be separate concepts. Interestingly, while Pargament's scale was designed to discern dis·cern v. dis·cerned, dis·cern·ing, dis·cerns v.tr. 1. To perceive with the eyes or intellect; detect. 2. To recognize or comprehend mentally. 3. between religiosity and spiritual beliefs, the results of a factor analysis suggested respondents in our study did not identify a difference between their spirituality beliefs and their religious practices. This result maybe attributable to the data collection location of this study, the southern region of the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , whose people in general have been reported to have more conservative values and higher regard for religion (Stewart, 2001). The results of the association between spiritual meaning and purpose and drug and alcohol use raise some interesting questions for further study. Is regular drug and alcohol use a barrier to spiritual meaning and purpose in life, does spirituality serve as a protective factor against drug and alcohol use, or does perceived lack of meaning and purpose in life lead to higher rate of drug and alcohol use? LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY While our findings indicate that college students who have a higher level of spiritual meaning and purpose in life are significantly less likely to use alcohol or drugs, readers should be careful not to assume a causal relationship between these factors, as the design of this study was correlational. However, the direction of this relationship appears to be a fruitful area of further research. In addition, further research needs to be conducted to validate Pargament's Meaning Scale (PMS); the results of this study indicate that the scale was not able to differentiate between students' spiritual beliefs and students' religious beliefs, which may actually reflect two separate constructs. In addition, the sample was drawn from one university in southern region of the country, which may not reflect the beliefs of all college students. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROGRAMMING The results of this study suggest that health education programming that provides students opportunities for spiritual growth and exploration may be a useful tool in the prevention of drug and alcohol use by college students. Current approaches to collegiate col·le·giate adj. 1. Of, relating to, or held to resemble a college. 2. Of, for, or typical of college students. 3. Of or relating to a collegiate church. drug and alcohol prevention have included normative nor·ma·tive adj. Of, relating to, or prescribing a norm or standard: normative grammar. nor programming, policy change, and the identification of factors that put college students at-risk for alcohol or drug use, as well as protective factors that buffer or protect against the use of alcohol or drugs. Based on the results of this study, health educators should design programming that assists students to identify and develop spiritual meaning and purpose in life. Specifically, health educators can: 1. design strategies that assist students identify relationships in their life that provide a sense of connectedness and spiritual meaning, 2. encourage and assist students to transcend life struggles, and 3. encourage students to search for meaning and purpose in life through the use of values clarification exercises and self-exploration exercises (Banks et al., 1984; Benjamin, & Looby, 1998; Berggren-Thomas & Griggs, 1995; Burkhardt, 1989). Wood and Hollander (2002) suggested that teaching strategies should provide student opportunities to develop a personal definition of spirituality, explore factors that contribute to discovering ones meaning and purpose and life, and identify if current health behaviors serve as a barriers or catalysts to spiritual health. Hammermeister and Peterson (2002) suggested that college students might be more open to a discussion of the core elements of spiritual well-being, than those of religion. Specifically, students might have an easier time accepting the importance of developing a sense of connectedness and meaning and purpose in life in relation to over-all wellness. In addition, Dennis and Dennis (2002) suggested that universities could integrate spiritual education into existent ex·is·tent adj. 1. Having life or being; existing. See Synonyms at real1. 2. Occurring or present at the moment; current. n. One that exists. Adj. 1. free-standing classes. Such classes might include philosophy, religion, sociology, psychology and health classes. This exploratory study of the impact on spiritual meaning and purpose in life on drug and alcohol use behaviors among college students indicates that spiritual meaning and purpose in life may serve as a protective factor. While these findings should be taken with a degree of caution, the exploration of spiritual domain of health offers yet another avenue to improve the quality of health for all individuals. In 1995, Glen Richardson predicted that spiritual health would be a major focus for educators for the 21st century. For this prediction to become a reality, further study is needed into the impact of spirituality and spiritual health on health behaviors, as well as the effectiveness of programming that addresses the spiritual health domain. CHES AREA Responsibility I--Assessing Individual and Community Needs for Health Education Competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. A: Obtain health related data about social and cultural environments, growth and development factors, needs, and interests. Competency B: Distinguish between behaviors that foster and those that hinder well-being. Responsibility VII--Communicating Health and Health Education Needs, Concerns, and Resources Competency A: Interpret concepts, purposes, and theories of health education. Competency B: Predict the impact of societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. value systems on health education programs. REFERENCES American College Health Association (2005). National College Health Assessment Web Summary. Updated September 2005. Available at http://www.acha.org/projects_programs/ncha_sampledata.cfm Banks, R. L., Poehler, D. L., & Russell, R. D. (1984). Spirit and human-spiritual interaction as a factor in health and in health education. Health Education, 15(5), 16-19. Bazan, W. J., & Dwyer, D. (1998). Assessing spirituality. Health Progress, 79(2), 20-24. Bensley, R.J. (1991). Defining spiritual health: A review of the literature. Journal of Health Education, 22(5), 287-290. Bellingham, R., Cohen, B., Jones, T., & Spaniol, L. (1989). Connectedness: Some skills for spiritual health. American Journal of Health Promotion, 4(1), 18-24. Benjamin, P., & Looby, J. (1998). Defining the nature of spirituality in the context of Maslow's and Roger's theories. Counseling and Values, 42(2), 92-99. Berggren-Thomas, F., & Griggs, M. J. (1995). Spirituality in aging: Spiritual need of spiritual journey? Journal of Gerontological ger·on·tol·o·gy n. The scientific study of the biological, psychological, and sociological phenomena associated with old age and aging. ge·ron Nursing, 21(3), 5-10. Bremmer, N. D, Collins, J. L., Kann, L, & Warren, C. W. (1995). Reliability of the youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. American Journal of Epidemiology epidemiology, field of medicine concerned with the study of epidemics, outbreaks of disease that affect large numbers of people. Epidemiologists, using sophisticated statistical analyses, field investigations, and complex laboratory techniques, investigate the cause , 141, 574-580. Boland, C. S. (1998). Addressing the significance of social support and spirituality for sustained health-promoting behaviors in the elderly. Journal of Holistic Nursing holistic nursing, n philosophy of nursing that seeks to facilitate patient healing by creating a caring, interactive atmosphere; incorporates energy field principles, patient em-powerment, scientific knowledge, and personal interaction to assist patients , 16(3), 355-368. Burkhardt, M. A. (1989). Spirituality: An analysis of the concept. Holistic Nursing Practice, 3(3), 69-77. Carson, V., Soeken, D. L., Shanty, J., & Terry, L. (1990). Hope and spiritual well-being: Essentials for living with aids. Perspectives in Psychiatric psy·chi·at·ric adj. Of or relating to psychiatry. psychiatric adjective Pertaining to psychiatry, mental disorders Care, 26(2), 28-34. Cavendish, R., Luise, B. J., Horne, K., Bauer, M., Medefindt, J., Gallo, M., et al. (2000). Opportunities for enhanced spirituality relevant to well adults. Nursing Diagnosis, 11(1), 151-167. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1990). Youth risk behavior surveillance system. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979 Health and Human Services, HHS , US Public Health Service. Dennis, D. L., & Dennis, B. G. (2002). Mental health: A case for spiritual education in public schools. The Health Educator, 34(1), 17-22. Dennis, D. L., Muller, S. M., Miller, K., & Panerjee, P. (2004). Spirituality among a college student cohort: A quantitative assessment. American Journal of Health Education, 35(4), 220-227. Do Rozario, L. (1997). Spirituality in the lives of people with disability and chronic illness: A creative paradigm of wholeness and reconstitution. Journal of Disability and Rehabilitation rehabilitation: see physical therapy. , 19(10), 427-434. Doswell, W. M., Kouyate, M., & Taylor, J. (2003). The role of spirituality preventing early sexual behavior. American Journal of Health Studies, 18(4), 195-202. Douglas, K. A., Collins, J. L., Warren, C., Kann, L., Gold, R., Clayton, S., et al. (1997). Results from the 1995 national college health risk behavior survey. Journal of American College Health, 46, 55-66. Fryback, P., & Reinert, B. R. (1999). Spirituality and people with potentially fatal diagnoses. Nursing Forum, 34(1), 13-22. Gall, T. G. (2000). Integrating religious resources within a general model of stress and coping: Long-term adjustment to breast cancer. Journal of Religion and Health, 99(2), 167-182. Gioiella, M. F. (1998) Spirituality and quality of life in gynecologic oncology Gynecologic oncology is a specialized field of medicine that focuses only on cancers of the female reproductive system, notably ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, endometrial cancer and vulvar cancer. patients. Cancer Practice, 6(6), 333-338 Green, L. L., Fullilove, T. F., & Fullilove, R. E. (1997). Stories of spiritual awakening. The nature of spirituality in recovery. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 15(4), 325-331. Hammermeister, J., & Peterson, M. (2001). Does spirituality make a difference? Psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. and health-related characteristics of spiritual well-being. American Journal of Health Education, 32(5), 293-297. Holder, D. W., Durant, R. H., Harris, T. L., Daniel, J. H., Oveidallah, D., & Goodman, E. (2000). The association between adolescent spirituality and voluntary sexual activity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26(4), 295-302. Jose, N. L., & Taylor, E. L. (1986). Spiritual health: A look at barriers to its inclusion in the health education curriculum. The Eta Sigma Gamman, 18(2), 16-19 Kaczorowski, J. M. (1989). Spiritual well-being and anxiety in adult diagnosed with cancer. The Hospice Journal, 5(3/4,), 105-116. O'Brien, M. (1982). The need for spiritual integrity. In H. Yura & M. Walsh (Eds.), Human Needs 2 and the Nursing Process. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Centiry-Crofts. Pargament, K. I. (1999). Multidimensional mul·ti·di·men·sion·al adj. Of, relating to, or having several dimensions. mul  ti·di·men Measurements of
Religiousness/Spirituality for Use in Health Research. Kalamazoo, MI:
Fetzer Institute.Perrin, K. M., & McDermott, R. J. (1997). The spiritual dimension of health: A review. American Journal of Health Studies, 13(2), 90-99. Richardson, G. E. (1995). Graduate programs in the year 2020. The Eta Sigma Gamma Monograph Series, 13(2), 142-164. Rowe, M., Michelle, A., & Ricahrd, G. (2004). Spirituality as a means of coping with chronic illness. American Journal of Health Studies, 19(1), 62-67. Stewart, C. (2001). The influence of spirituality on substance use of college students. Journal of Drug Education, 31(4), 343-351. Templin, D., & Martin, M. (1999). The relationship between religious orientation Noun 1. religious orientation - an attitude toward religion or religious practices orientation - an integrated set of attitudes and beliefs agnosticism - a religious orientation of doubt; a denial of ultimate knowledge of the existence of God; "agnosticism , gender, and drinking patterns among catholic college students. College Students Journal, 33(4), 488-497. Turner, C., & Willis, R. (1979). The relationship between self-reported religiosity and drug use by college students. Journal of Drug Education, 9(1), 67-78. Wechsler, H., & Kuo, M. (2000). College students define binge drinking and estimate its prevalence: Results from a national survey. Journal of American College Health, 49, 57-64. Wood, R. J., & Hollander, D. (2002). In search of spirit: Strategies for the development of wholeness, health and spirit. American Journal of Health Education, 33(3), 186-188. Ralph J. Wood, PhD, CHES Edward Hebert, PhD Ralph J. Wood, PhD, CHES is an Associate Professor of Health Studies and Edward Hebert, PhD is an Associate Professor of Kinesiology kinesiology Study of the mechanics and anatomy of human movement and their roles in promoting health and reducing disease. Kinesiology has direct applications to fitness and health, including developing exercise programs for people with and without disabilities, preserving in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Studies at Southeastern Louisiana University Southeastern Louisiana University is a state-funded public university that is located in the city of Hammond, Louisiana. It was originally founded in 1925 by Linus A. Sims, the principal of Hammond High School, as Hammond Junior College, located in a wing of the high school . Address all correspondence to Ralph J. Wood, SLU SLU Saint Louis University SLU Southeastern Louisiana University (Hammond, LA, USA) SLU St Lawrence University SLU Suomen Liikunta Ja Urheilu (Finnish Sports Federation) SLU Starting Lineup 10845, Hammond, LA 70402; PHONE: 985549-2131; FAX: 985-549-2119; E-MAIL e-mail: see electronic mail. in full electronic mail Messages and other data exchanged between individuals using computers in a network. : rwood@selu.edu.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample and
University Undergraduate Population
Sample
University
Population
Demographic Characteristic n % %
Gender
Female 414 68% 63%
Male 192 32% 37%
Race
Caucasian 486 77% 82%
African American 111 18% 14%
Other 27 4% 4%
Classification
Freshman 219 36% 37%
Sophomore 171 28% 22%
Junior 109 18% 17%
Senior 107 18% 24%
Marital Status
Single 419 69%
Married 64 11%
Separated/Divorced 22 4%
Table 2. Items from Pargament's Meaning Scale and Factor Loadings
Survey Item Factor
Loading
My spiritual beliefs give meaning to my life's joys and .77
sorrows.
The goals of my life grow out of my understanding of God. .62
Without a sense of spirituality, my daily life would be .81
meaningless.
* The meaning in my life comes from feeling connected to .31
other living things.
My religious beliefs help me find a purpose in even the most .84
painful and confusing events in my life.
When I lose touch with God I have a harder time feeling that .77
there is purpose and meaning in life.
My spiritual beliefs give my life a sense of significance .88
and purpose.
My mission in life and guided/shaped by my faith in God. .89
When I am disconnected from the spiritual dimension of my .74
life, I lose my sense of purpose.
My relationship with God helps me find meaning in the ups .88
and downs of life.
My life is significant because I am part of God's plan. .85
What I try to do in my day-to-day life is important to me .79
from a spiritual point of view.
I am trying to fulfill my God-given purpose in life. .84
Knowing that I am part of something greater than myself .81
gives meaning to my life.
Looking at the most troubling or confusing events from a .83
spiritual perspective adds meaning to my life.
My purpose in life reflects what I believe God wants for me. .87
Without my religious foundation, my life would be .79
meaningless.
My feelings of spirituality add meaning to the events in my .86
life.
God plays a role in how I choose my path in life. .85
My spirituality helps define the goals I set for myself. .85
* This item was not used in calculating the Spirituality Score.
Table 3. Correlation between Spirituality Score and Self-Reported
Substance Use Behaviors
Lifetime frequency Frequency in
last 30 days
Substance Use Behavior r [r.sup.2] r [r.sup.2]
Cigarette smoking -.23 ** .05
Alcohol consumption -.29 ** .08
Binge drinking -.28 ** .07
Driving after consuming -.20 ** .04
alcohol
Being a passenger in a -.16 ** .03
vehicle driven by
someone who had
been consuming alcohol
Smoking marijuana -.30 ** .09 -.20 ** .04
Cocaine use -.15 ** .02 -.04 .00
MDMA -.18 ** .03 -.14 ** .02
GHB -.09 * .O1 -.06 .00
Alcohol plus illegal -.17 ** .03
substance
Correlation significant (p < .05)
** Correlation significant (p <.O 1)
Table 4. Mean (SD) Spirituality Scores of Groups Differentiated by
Engaging in or Refraining from Using Illegal Substances During
Lifetime
Substance use Engaged in Never engaged
behavior behavior at in behavior
least once during lifetime
during lifetime
n Mean (SD) n Mean (SD) t-value ES
Marijuana 336 3.64 (0.79) 265 4.06 (0.72) 6.72 * 0.55
Cocaine 110 3.53 (0.80) 493 3.90 (0.77) 4.50 * 0.48
MDMA 160 3.62 (0.70) 439 3.91 (0.80) 4.07 * 0.37
GHB 81 3.64 (0.63) 515 3.87 (0.80) 2.41 * 0.30
Alcohol plus 120 3.58 (0.77) 455 3.92 (0.78) 4.22 * 0.43
illegal
substance
* Groups significantly different (p < .01)
|
|
||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion