The relationship between sense of coherence and career thoughts. (Articles).

The authors examined the impact of sense of coherence on the career thought processes of a sample of college students. A. Antonovsky (1987) defined sense of coherence as the global orientation that the world is comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful. Study participants completed the Sense of Coherence Scale (A. Antonovsky, 1987) and the Career Thoughts Inventory CTI; J. P. Sampson, G. W. Peterson, J. G. Lenz, R. C. Reardon, & D. E. Saunders, 1996). Multivariate tests indicated a medium relationship between sense of coherence and CTI Total and subscale scores; sense of coherence accounted fur 14% of the variance. Univariate tests also indicated a medium relationship between sense of coherence and each subscale.

The process of making an effective career decision can be a stressful event in an individual's life (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996.). Several factors contribute to the individual's ability to successfully manage this stressful life event; some factors are related to the actual skills needed to make an effective decision, and others are related to the individual's psychological resources. One kind of psychological resource, sense of coherence, has been shown to have a mediating effect on an individual's ability to globally manage stressful life events (A. Antonovsky, 1987). Several individuals have suggested that making an effective career choice may also be stressful, causing the individual confusion and anxiety (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 1991; Sampson et al., 1996, 1998). These affective responses are related to the complexity and importance of making an effective career choice that is often complicated by a lack of relevant information, anxiety regarding potential outcomes, and bala ncing personal views with the perception of significant others (Sampson et al., 1996). Because research has provided evidence that sense of coherence has a moderating effect on an individual's management of a variety of stressful life situations and events, it seems reasonable that sense of coherence would also moderate career decision making. In this study, we examined the impact of sense of coherence on individuals' career thought processes.

Relationship of Sense of Coherence to Career Thoughts

During the 1970s, A. Antonovsky's (1987, 1991) research focused on identifying general resources that individuals use to manage the tension associated with stressors. These generalized resistance resources facilitate positive adjustment to the tension associated with a variety of life situations. A. Antonovsky (1987) suggested that factors such as money, religious faith, family, and social support (i.e., generalized resistance resources) provide. individuals with life experiences that are characterized by consistency, an underload--overload balance of stimuli, and participation in determining outcomes. The specific nature of these generalized resistance resources varies from culture to culture. Although A. Antonovsky (1987) suggested that the nature and kinds of life experiences that lead to the development of a sense of coherence may differ across cultures, individuals from different cultures may develop a strong sense of coherence as long as life experiences are characterized by consistency, an underload-ov erload balance of stimuli, and participation in determining outcomes (Antonovsky, 1987; Bowman, 1996). These kinds of life experiences lead an individual to believe that one can derive order and sense out of chaos. A. Antonovsky (1987) used the phrase "sense of coherence" to describe this belief about the world, or global orientation. Furthermore, individuals who have a strong sense of coherence can more successfully manage the tension associated with stressors. Sense of coherence is the global orientation that the world is comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful (A. Antonovsky, 1987): Comprehensibility is the degree to which an individual perceives the world as predictable, ordered, and explicable; manageability is the degree to which an individual believes that he or she has the personal and social resources to handle a demand; and meaningfulness is the belief that demands are challenges that are worthy of investment and commitment.

A. Antonovsky (1987) viewed meaningfulness, the emotional component of sense of coherence, as the most important of the three components because it provides the individual with the motivation to search for order in the world, to use the resources available, and to seek out new resources for managing a demand. Generalized resistance resources assist the individual in developing a strong sense of coherence and serve as coping resources that protect the individual from the negative impact of the tension associated with stressors. Consistent experiences form the basis for comprehensibility, experiences that reinforce the individual's belief that resources are available to meet life's demands form the basis for manageability, and experiences that involve participation in shaping outcomes form the basis for meaningfulness. Sense of coherence is not meant to be a specific coping style. Rather, a person with a strong sense of coherence, who believes that he or she understands a problem and sees it as a challenge, is more likely to select the most appropriate coping behavior for a specific problem (A. Antonovsky, 1987).

A sense of coherence facilitates personal adjustment by increasing the likelihood that an individual will believe that dealing with the stressor is worthwhile, that attempts to resolve the problem are worth the effort, and that the stressor is a challenge rather than a burden and, consequently, will decide to do something about the stressor. A strong sense of coherence will increase the chances that a person will mobilize available resources and actively seek out new resources useful in handling stressors. In the context of career development, when faced with a difficult career decision, the individual who has a strong sense of coherence is more likely to persevere in resolving his or her career problem.

Sense of coherence has been found to be positively related to subjective health perceptions, self-esteem, internal locus of control, and life satisfaction/ quality of life (A. Antonovsky, 1993; Korotokov, 1998; Lustig, Rosenthal, Strauser, & Haynes, 2000; Motzer & Stewart, 1996; Soderberg, Lundman., & Norberg, 1997). Sense of coherence has shown a negative relationship with state and trait anxiety, perceived stressors, depression, and somatic complaints (A. Antonovsky, 1993; Carstens & Spangenberg, 1997; Flannery., Perry, Penk, & Flannery, 1994; Korotokov; 1998; McSherry & Holm, 1994; Rena, Moshe, & Abraham, 1996). Data from several studies indicated that there was a relationship between a strong sense of coherence and (a) the psychological adjustment of refugees (Ying & Akutsu, 1997), (b) managing the stress associated with taking an exam (Flannery & Flannery, 1990), and (c) the psychological adjustment of individuals who were forced to move from their homes (H. Antonovsky & Sagy, 1986). A strong sense of c oherence has also been shown to differentiate between satisfied/competent workers and incompetent/dissatisfied workers (Kalimo & Vuori, 1990). A review of the research showed that sense of coherence is a construct that significantly influences an individual's personal adjustment to life stresses. Therefore, sense of coherence may have a moderating effect on a person's career thoughts and career decision making, which have been conceptualized as stressful life events (Szymanski, Hershensen, Enright, & Ettinger, 1996). Examining the relationship between sense of coherence and career thoughts may have significant implications for career and vocational counseling.

Within the context of career processing information theory, career thoughts are conceptualized as cognitions that are on a continuum from functional to dysfunctional (Sampson et al., 1996). Career thoughts are important factors that affect an individual's career decision-making process and overall vocational development. An individual's career behaviors tend to be influenced by the interaction of vocational cognitions, behaviors, and environments; changes in an individual's career behaviors tend to be cognitively mediated (Keller, Biggs, & Gysbers, 1982). Some individuals tend to verbalize negative or dysfunctional statements regarding the career decision-making process, making the career problem-solving and decision-making process more difficult (Sampson et al., 1996). The Career Thoughts Inventory (Sampson et al., 1996), an instrument based on cognitive information processing theory (Peterson et al., 1991), categorized dysfunctional career thoughts into three general types. First, individuals can have diffi culty initiating or maintaining the career decision-making process because of emotional barriers or difficulty in understanding how to make a decision. Second, committing to a career choice can be difficult because of the anxiety an individual associates with the outcome. Third, individuals can have problems integrating the opinions of others with their own ideas about potential career choices.

Dysfunctional career thoughts have been associated with a variety of cognitive and behavioral problems. Research has provided evidence that dysfunctional career thoughts are related to (a) diminished feelings of self-worth and subjective well-being, (b) depression, (c) anxiety, (d) lowered job satisfaction and performance, and (e) distorted and misinformed career beliefs (Judge & Locke, 1993; Newman, Fuqua, & Seaworth, 1989; Sampson et al., 1996, 1998; Saunders, Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon, 2000; Serling & Betz, 1990). On the basis of information regarding the negative impact of dysfunctional career thoughts and the potential mediating effect of sense of coherence on a various life stressors, we hypothesized that an individual's career thoughts could be influenced by a more global orientation to life, specifically, sense of coherence.

The following example illustrates the hypothesized relationship between sense of coherence and career thoughts. A woman in her mid-20s is unhappy with her current job and is having difficulty deciding on a new career goal. In discussing her career indecision with her counselor, she struggles to maintain her motivation to continue discussing a distressing life concern, finds it difficult to integrate career information, and considers the process of choosing a new career overwhelming. An individual with a strong sense of coherence, facing a similar life concern, is more likely to believe that (a) attempts to resolve her or his career indecision are worth the effort, (b) career information is understandable with effort, (c) and she or he has the capacity to cognitively and emotionally handle making an effective career decision. Thus, the individual is better prepared to persevere in the career decision-making process when faced with difficult cognitive and affective career issues.

Our study investigated the relationship between an individual's sense of coherence and dysfunctional career thoughts in a sample of college students. On the basis of a review of the literature, we hypothesized that individuals who reported a strong sense of coherence would have lower levels of dysfunctional career thoughts.

Method

Participants

The sample consisted of 156 college students who were enrolled in a southern urban university and who were taking introductory courses in the university's college of education. All students were freshmen or sophomores. Surveys were distributed in class, and participation was voluntary. Eleven surveys were not completed, resulting in a total of 145 participants who ranged in age from 18 to 58 years (M = 26.4, SD = 9.2); 49% were between 18 and 22 years old. Women were 85% (n = 122) of the sample. Of the 145 participants, 54% (n = 78) were Caucasian, 40% (n = 57) were African American, 2% (n = 3) were Asian, and 2% (n = 3) were Native American; 2% (n = 3) did not report their ethnic background. Twenty-five percent (n = 35) of the sample were married. At the time of the study, all of the participants were enrolled as undergraduate students at the aforementioned university.

Instruments

Sense of Coherence Scale (SOCS; A. Antonovsky, 1987). The 29-item SOCS measures sense of coherence in the areas of comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness. The SOCS uses a 7-point Likert-type scale with two anchoring responses. Examples of questions are (a) "When you talk to people, do you have the feeling that they don't understand you?" (1 = never have this feeling, 7 = always have this feeling) and (b) "When you have a difficult problem, the choice of the solution is ...." (1 = always confusing and hard to find, 7 = always completely clear). Responses to items were summed, with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of coherence. Although the SOCS measures sense of coherence in three areas (i.e., comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness), factor analysis demonstrated a unitary factor, suggesting that the use of the Total score across the 29 items is appropriate (A. Antonovsky, 1993; Frenz, Carey, & Jorgenson, 1993). Mean scores were inserted for missing data. A. Antonovsky (1993 ) reviewed 42 studies that investigated the criterion validity of the SOCS. In general, these studies indicated positive correlations between SOCS and (a) health and well-being, (b) self-esteem, (c) social skills, and (d) social support. Negative correlations were found between SOCS and anxiety and perceived stressors. In a study by Frenz et al. (1993), nonclinical participants scored higher in sense of coherence than clinical participants, and negative correlations were found between sense of coherence and self-reports of perceived stress and trait anxiety. Internal consistency reliability coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) have been reported between .86 and .95 (A. Antonovsky, 1993). We found an internal consistency estimate of .91.

CTI (Sampson et al., 1996). The CTI is based on the cognitive information processing theoretical approach to career development and career services (Peterson et al., 1991) and a cognitive therapy approach to mental health and mental health services (Beck, 1976; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979). For the CTI, career thoughts are defined as outcomes of one's thinking about assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans, and/or strategies related to career problem solving and decision making. The 48-item CTI produces a Total score and scores on the following three construct scales: (a) The Decision Making Confusion scale (14 items) measures the extent to which an individual's emotions or lack of decision-making skill knowledge interferes with his or her ability to make a career decision, (b) the Commitment Anxiety scale (10 items) examines the impact anxiety has on a person's ability to commit to a career decision, and (c) the External Conflict scale (5 items) examines how well the person uses input from others and his or her self-perception in decision making. Respondents use a 4-point rating scale, with responses ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Examples of items are (a) "No field of study or occupation interests me at this time" (Decision Making Con fusion); (b) "The views of important people in my life interfere with choosing a field of study or occupation" (External Conflict); (c) "I'm afraid of overlooking an occupation" (Commitment Anxiety). CTI Total scores and three subscale scores were derived by summing the items. Mean scores were inserted for missing data. Evidence of the validity of the CTI is provided by Sampson et al. (1996). Principal components analysis provided support for three factors: Decision Malting Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict. Correlations between the four scales of the CTI and measures of similar constructs (e.g., My Vocational Situation, Career Decision Scale, Career Decision Profile, NEO Personality Inventory-Revised) provide support for the convergent validity of the CTI. Finally, the CTI scores were significantly different between college students who were seeking career services and students who were not seeking career services, providing evidence of the criterion-related validity of the CTI. Internal c onsistency reliability coefficients have been reported between .93 and .97 for the CTI Total, .90 and .94 for Decision Making Confusion, .79 and .91 for Commitment Anxiety, and .74 and .81 for External Conflict. In our study, an internal consistency estimate of .98 was found for the CTI total, .96 for Decision Making Confusion, .93 for Commitment Anxiety, and .85 for External Conflict.

Procedure

Faculty in the College of Education at the previously mentioned university agreed to distribute survey packets. Of the 185 survey packets that were distributed to faculty, 156 were completed, and the remaining 29 were not completed. Nine respondents had incomplete data and were dropped from the sample, reducing the total number of participants to 145. Research packets distributed to the students contained a demographic form that was developed for this study, the two test instruments, and an informed consent form. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, that all the data collected would be confidential, and that they were free to withdraw at any time without penalty. Participants completed the survey in class and returned it to their course instructor. Completed and unused test packets were returned to us for data entry.

Data Analysis

Pearson product--moment correlation coefficients were computed between scores on all possible pairs of measures. A multivariate test to examine the relationship between sense of coherence (independent variable) and the CTI (Total and subscale scores, dependent variables) were computed. In addition, univariate tests between sense of coherence and the CTI (Total and individual subscale scores) were computed in order to examine the percentage of variance explained for each of the dependent variables. Finally, t tests between gender and ethnic groups on the SOCS and CTI (Total score and subscale scores) were computed. An alpha level of .05 was used for hypothesis testing. Data were analyzed using the SPSS (Version 9.0 for Windows).

Results

We hypothesized that individuals who reported a strong sense of coherence would have lower levels of dysfunctional career thoughts. This hypothesis was tested using three sets of analyses. First, correlations between the SOCS and CTI Total score and subscale scores were computed. Second, multivariate and univariate analyses were conducted with the CTI as a dependent variable and SOCS as the independent variable. Third, gender and ethnic differences were examined on the SOCS and CTI.

Correlations, means, standard deviations, and range on the SOCS and CTI Total score and subscales are presented in Table 1. The SOCS mean and standard deviation were 146.5 and 22.1, respectively. The mean and standard deviation on the CTI Total were 40.0 and 26.4, respectively. The means and standard deviations on the CTI subscales were as follows: (a) Decision Making Confusion, M = 9.4, SD = 7.9; (b) Commitment Anxiety, M = 10.0, SD = 6.5; and (c) External Conflict, M = 3.9, SD = 3.0. The Pearson product--moment correlation coefficients were computed between scores on all possible pairs of measures. Medium correlations between the SOCS and the CTI Total score and subscale scores were found. CTI Total score and subscale scores were highly correlated (Cohen, 1988).

The omnibus multivariate regression was significant, Wilks's Lambda, F= 5.62 (4, 140) .86; p < .001; [[eta].sup.2] = .14, indicating that the independent variable, sense of coherence, accounted for 14% of the variance of the dependent variables: CTI Total, CTI Decision Making Confusion subscale, CTI Commitment Anxiety subscale, and CTI External Conflict subscale. Univariate test results are presented in Table 2. The univariate relationships indicate that the independent variable, sense of coherence, accounted for 12% of the variance of CTI Total, 10% of the variance of CTI Decision Making Confusion subscale, 13% of the variance of CTI Commitment Anxiety subscale, and 9% of the variance of CTI External Conflict subscale.

In order to compare gender and ethnic differences in participants' scores on the SO CS, CTI Total, and CTI subscales, t tests were calculated for male and female participants and for Caucasian and African American participants on each of the four measures. No significant gender or ethnic differences were found.

Discussion

Overall, the results of the study support our hypothesis that individuals who reported a strong sense of coherence would have lower levels of dysfunctional career thoughts. It is important to note that the results indicate a medium relationship between sense of coherence and CTI Total score and the three subscale scores, with sense of coherence accounting for 14% of the variance (Cohen, 1988). This suggests that individuals with a stronger sense of coherence seemed to have less dysfunctional career thoughts and, therefore, would be better able to deal effectively with the career decision-making process. The results of this study seem to be congruent with previous research indicating that there is a positive relationship between sense of coherence and functional thoughts (A. Antonovsky, 1993; Korotokov, 1998; Lustig et al., 2000; Motzer & Stewart, 1996; Soderberg et al., 1997). Career counselors could consider structuring counseling tasks to strengthen sense of coherence. For example, the career counselor coul d structure the counseling sessions so that it is more understandable, the client actively participates in the decision-making process, and the counseling tasks do not overwhelm the client.

Results of the study also indicate that sense of coherence accounted for a significant portion of the variance for each one of the three CTI subscales. Decision Making Confusion measures an individual's ability to understand and maintain the decision-making process. The results indicate a medium relationship between sense of coherence and the Decision Making Confusion subscale, with sense of coherence accounting for 10% of the variance (Cohen, 1988). This suggests that individuals with a stronger sense of coherence are better able to understand and persist in the career decision-making process. Individuals who have a strong sense of coherence typically believe that stressors are challenges rather than burdens and believe that they have the resources to meet life's demands. Thus, they are more likely to believe that the problems and difficulties associated with making a career decision are manageable and that resolving the problems is worth the effort.

The Commitment Anxiety scale measures an individual's anxiety regarding the specific outcomes related to making a career decision. The results indicate that there was a medium relationship between sense of coherence and the Commitment Anxiety subscale, with sense of coherence accounting for 13% of the variance (Cohen, 1988). This finding suggests that individuals with a stronger sense of coherence were less likely to experience anxiety related to committing to a career goal. Persons with a strong sense of coherence typically believed that career problems were challenges that were worthy of investment and that they had the personal and social resources to handle deciding on a career goal.

The External Conflict scale measures an individual's ability to effectively integrate opinions from individuals who are close to them about their career choice and to take responsibility for their career decision. The results indicate that there was a medium relationship between sense of coherence and the External Conflict subscale, with sense of coherence accounting for 9% of the variance (Cohen, 1988). The results indicate that individuals with a stronger sense of coherence were less likely to experience problems related to balancing the views of others and taking ownership of their career decision. Individuals with a strong sense of coherence were more likely to believe that they had the capacity to (a) come to their own decision and (b) understand a range of opinions about their career choice and consequently effectively incorporate their career views with others.

Limitations

There are limitations to the generalizability of the results of our study. First, because the sample consisted primarily of female college students, generalizing to other populations should be carried out with caution. The nonprobability and cross-sectional nature of the data suggest that the interpretation of the results should be limited to the sample examined in this study. Second, the data obtained were self-report data and may have been subject to social desirability bias. For instance, sense of coherence scores may have been inflated and CTI scores deflated. Third, a causal relationship between the variables cannot be inferred because of the nonexperimental nature of the research design.

Conclusion

This study is a preliminary investigation of the relationship between sense of coherence and career thoughts. Additional research is needed in the following areas. First, research should be completed with a non-college-based sample to determine if the results of this study can be replicated with a more diverse sample. Second, research should examine the relationship between sense of coherence and CTI scores for individuals who are currently involved in career counseling. Third, research should focus on determining if interventions designed to strengthen sense of coherence actually reduce the level of dysfunctional career thoughts relative to specific subscales of the CTI. Fourth, future research should attempt to control for the effect of social desirability on sense of coherence and dysfunctional career thoughts.

Overall, the results of our study suggest that sense of coherence is an important construct to consider in the career decision-making process. Interventions that are designed to strengthen sense of coherence may be important in reducing the overall level of dysfunctional career thoughts. Cognitive behavioral interventions designed to strengthen sense of coherence are consistent with cognitive information processing theory and could be effectively integrated into the career counseling domain.

TABLE 1

Correlations, Means, Standard Deviations, and Range of Sense of
Coherence Scale (SOCS) and Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) Total Score
and Subscales--Decision Making Confusion (DMC), Commitment Anxiety (CA),
and External Conflict (EC)

                                                   CTI
                                                Subscales
                                                    CTI
Variable     M        SD       Range     SOCS      Total         DMC

SOCS       146.5     22.1      82-196     --         --          --
CTI Total   40.0     26.4       0-115    -.35 *      --          --
DMC          9.4      7.9       0-29     -.31 *     .96 *        --
CA          10.0      6.5       0-29     -.37 *     .95 *       .89 *
EC           3.9      3.0       0-13     -.29 *     .88 *       .82 *

              CTI Subscales

Variable    CA       EC

SOCS        --       --
CTI Total   --       --
DMC         --       --
CA          --       --
EC         .79 *     --

Note: Higher means indicate greater sense of coherence for SOCS. Higher
means indicate greater dysfunction for CTI Total and subscales.

N = 145.

* p < .01.
TABLE 2

Univariate Tests for Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) Total Score and
Subscales--Decision Making Confusion (DMC), Commitment Anxiety (CA),
and External Conflict (EC)

Variable      MS       F     [[eta].sup.2]

CTI Total  12,447.1  20.2 *     .12 (a)
DMC           893.1  15.6 *     .10 (b)
CA            825.2  22.1 *     .13 (c)
EC            109.5  13.6 *     .09 (d)

Note: N = 145.

(a) [R.sup.2] = .12 (medium effect).

(b) [R.sup.2] = .10 (medium effect).

(c) [R.sup.2] = .13 (medium effect).

(d) [R.sup.2] = .09 (medium effect).

* p < .001.

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Daniel C. Lustig and David R. Strauser, Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Research, The University of Memphis. Correspondence concerning this article should he addressed to Daniel C. Lustig, Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Research, 100 Ball Hall; The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38111-9890 (e-mail: [e-mail]).