The perceptions of kindergarten teachers on retention.

Abstract. The perceptions of 37 kindergarten teachers on kindergarten student retention as an intervention were examined. The major goals of the study were to: 1) identify kindergarten teachers' perceptions of retention, 2) examine differences in reported perceptions of kindergarten student retention as an intervention by certified versus noncertified teachers, and 3) investigate teachers' perceptions of retention as a function of teaching experience. Using the sequential-exploratory design method, participants perceived kindergarten retention as a necessary intervention tool. Perceptions of retention by kindergarten teachers appear to vary as a function of teaching experience and between certified and noncertified teachers.

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Slavin (2003) reports that the primary purpose of kindergarten programs is the social, emotional, and cognitive development of young children. A major component of the program is readiness training. Kindergarten students are taught skills that prepare them for more formal 1st-grade instruction. They learn how to follow directions, remain on-task, cooperate with peers, and solve problems. Historically, the curriculum was organized to encourage emotional development and develop a positive self-esteem. Activities were organized to improve large and small muscle skills. Slavin (2003) concludes that in recent years, kindergarten programs have focused more on rigorous academics. He suggests that this academic focus is inconsistent with the normal development of 5- and 6-year-olds.

Black (2004) reports that increased academic demands on kindergarten students have resulted in an increased number of students retained in kindergarten. Charlesworth (1989), Shepard and Smith (1988), and Jimerson (2001) reported that rigid kindergarten programs tend to increase children's episodes of failure. Shepard and Smith (1988) concluded that the policy of retaining kindergarten children is the consequence of inappropriate curriculum. In 1996, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that 16.8 percent of seniors had repeated at least one grade since kindergarten, and that kindergarten through 2nd grade were the most repeated grades (Snyder, Hoffman, & Geddes, 1996). As the number of kindergarten students retained in public elementary schools continues to rise, it is important to study kindergarten teacher perceptions of student retention.

Study Rationale and Theoretical Framework

The "accountability movement" has gained momentum since the 1983 "A Nation at Risk" report. The federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 has also increased expectations for the annual assessment of student performance. McGill-Franzen and Allington (1993) reported that high-stakes primary grade testing increased the chances that low-performing children will be retained or classified. In 1988, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) reported that the trend toward early academics is inconsistent with the appropriate development of young children (NAEYC, 1988). Morris (2001) suggested a positive relationship in Miami Public Schools between high-stakes testing and retention in elementary and middle grades. McCoy and Reynolds (1991) concluded that as teachers and principals are held accountable for student achievement, retention is viewed as a key component of accountability and school reform. Despite the substantial body of literature on retention and its relationship to student achievement and drop-out rates, research on teacher perceptions of kindergarten student retention as an intervention has yet to be explored. School-based factors, such as teacher beliefs and perceptions of kindergarten student retention as an intervention, need to be addressed. Mantzicopoulos and Neuharth-Pritchett (1998) stressed the need for research on retention from a perspective that goes beyond the child-focused paradigm. Accordingly, this study focuses on kindergarten teacher perceptions of retention as an intervention.

There are a number of reasons for kindergarten retention. Niklason (1984) reported that inadequate progress, disruptive behavior, low socioeconomic status, and immaturity highly correlate with kindergarten student retention. Barona and Garcia (1990) concluded that kindergarten students were retained for developmental immaturity, emotional immaturity, and failure to pass standardized proficiency or achievement tests. Walsh, Ellwein, Eads, and Miller (1991) examined the socioeconomic status, sex, and age of kindergarten students who were retained and concluded that boys from lower socioeconomic status households were more likely to be retained or recommended for retention. Cosden and Zimmer (1991) found that boys, minority students, and children from low socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to be retained or recommended for retention. Reynolds (1992) concluded that a disproportionate number of disadvantaged minority children are retained in kindergarten. Since teachers are the ones who recommend kindergarten students for retention, it is important to better understand their beliefs and perceptions on kindergarten retention as an intervention.

Purpose

This study was designed to examine kindergarten teachers' perceptions of retention as an intervention. The following research questions guided the structure of the study:

1. What are kindergarten teachers' perceptions on kindergarten retention as an intervention?

2. Does a significant relationship exist between teachers' certification status and their perception of kindergarten retention?

3. Is there a significant relationship between teachers' teaching experience and their perception of kindergarten retention?

Methodology

Sample

The population for this study was composed of kindergarten teachers who were randomly selected in public elementary schools in a southeastern school district in North Carolina. The majority of the participants were female (73 percent). The participants were either certified (56.8 percent) or non-certified (43.2 percent). About 65 percent of the participants had five years or more of teaching experience, and 35 percent had less than five years of teaching experience (see Table 1). Since this study focused on elementary schools in one school district, there was no possibility for uncontrolled between-district effects.

Instruments and Procedures

The researcher utilized the sequential-exploratory design method by using both qualitative and quantitative methods to examine kindergarten teacher perceptions of retention. Creswell (2003) reported that the added value of mixed-method approach has been well-documented in the literature and that the methodology allows for better data triangulation. A self-constructed Kindergarten Retention Survey (KRS) was used to collect data. The instrument was constructed after a thorough review of the literature. The researcher used Cronbach's index of internal consistency to test the reliability of the scale. The reliability coefficient was [infinity] = .7172, which was an acceptable reliable rate (Creswell, 2003). The instrument consisted of two sections. The first section was designed to gather demographic and qualitative data, while the second section was designed for collecting quantitative data on kindergarten teacher perceptions on retention as an intervention. The 20 belief statements on the second section of the survey used a 5-point Likert scale. Participants responded to statements by making one of five possible choices: strongly agree = SA, agree = A, undecided = U, disagree = D, or strongly disagree = SD.

Rate of Return

Fifty-two survey questionnaires were sent to participating teachers. Thirty-seven questionnaires were returned on time for analysis, representing a return rate of 71.2 percent. To determine the possibility of response bias, the researcher compared the characteristics of the participants with those of the population of kindergarten teachers in the school district of the study. The characteristics of the participants were fairly consistent with the overall characteristics of kindergarten teachers in the school districts in terms of gender and ethnicity.

Analysis

The researcher used the sequential-exploratory design method to examine the teacher perceptions of kindergarten student retention. This method of analysis is characterized by an initial phase of qualitative analysis, followed by quantitative analysis. This design permits the use of quantitative data results in the interpretation of the qualitative findings. The analysis of the data from the study was divided into two phases. The first phase involved the analysis of the qualitative data. The main themes from the participants' responses were identified, coded, and grouped according to the themes that emerged. Table 2 shows the emerging themes from the qualitative analysis.

The second phase involved the analysis of the quantitative data to determine kindergarten teachers' perception of kindergarten student retention. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used primarily to compare the perceptions of certified versus noncertified, and experienced versus non-experienced, kindergarten teachers on kindergarten retention. Tables 3 and 4 display the factor mean scores of the participants' perceptions on kindergarten retention. The researcher selected factor analysis as the analytical method, because it offers sophisticated statistics that ensure appropriate standard errors for the study. The principal components analysis was the extraction method used to determine the factor solution with varimax rotation, using Kaiser rule (Gorsuch, 1983).

Findings

The researcher found that kindergarten teachers' perceptions of kindergarten student retention vary. The participants' responses on the qualitative data ranged from the definition of retention to reasons for retention. The results showed that kindergarten teachers perceived kindergarten retention as a necessary intervention tool in the larger context of increased accountability and education reform. The participants in this study perceived academic ability (87.3 percent), attendance (78.1 percent), social maturity (73.5 percent), emotional maturity (72.5 percent), and physical maturity (67.3 percent) to be the major reasons for kindergarten retention (see Table 2). One kindergarten teacher wrote, "Kindergarten retention, to me, is an equalizer of educational opportunities for some student." Another one stated that "students enter kindergarten classroom at different developmental levels, and retention is a useful strategy for the immature students." Another participant stated that "kindergarten curriculum is as rigorous as 1st grade and some students might need the extra year to catch up."

The result from the factor mean scores on kindergarten retention (see Table 3) showed that the participants who were certified had a lower perception (M = 3.17, SD = 0.71) on the benefits of kindergarten retention than their noncertified (M = 4.46, SD = 0.30) counterparts. The results also showed that the participants overwhelmingly perceived the school districts' retention policy to be sound and supportive. The certified participants perceived the rigorous kindergarten curriculum (M = 4.30, SD = 0.45) as responsible for higher kindergarten retention more than their noncertified (M = 3.98, SD = 0.55) participants did. The researcher found that participants with less than five years of teaching experience (see Table 4) had a more favorable perception of the benefits of retention (M = 4.34, SD = 0.47) than did their counterparts with more than five years of teaching experience (M = 3.44, SD = 0.64).

Conclusion

In this study, kindergarten teachers' perceptions of retention on kindergarten students as an intervention were examined. A second goal was to determine whether kindergarten teacher perceptions were a function of their certification status or teaching experience. Results showed that kindergarten teachers in this study perceive kindergarten retention as a necessary intervention strategy, but the participants with less than five years of teaching experience perceived the benefits of kindergarten student retention to be greater than did teachers with more than five years of teaching. It is also important to note that noncertified kindergarten teachers placed a higher value on the benefits of retention than their certified counterparts did. An apparent contradiction is that experienced kindergarten teachers in this study were less supportive of kindergarten student retention but perceived the district's retention policy to be sound.

Implications

The increased rate of kindergarten retention should be a major concern to education leaders, policymakers, and teacher education institutions. The results of this study have some policy implications. First, school districts need to examine the distribution of quality elementary school kindergarten teachers. Darling-Hammond and Youngs (2002) stated that the certification status of teachers is a measure of their subject knowledge, knowledge of teaching and learning, and teaching experience. Every kindergarten classroom should be equipped with highly qualified teachers who are well-grounded in developmentally appropriate practices. School districts also should examine the allocation and distribution of professional development resources for kindergarten teachers on such topics as retention and developmentally appropriate teaching. Adequate resources should be targeted specifically to intervention strategies that will promote young children's social and cognitive competencies in kindergarten classrooms. Intervention strategies, like remedial instruction, cooperative learning, peer tutoring, after-school programs, and individualized instructions (Mohl & Slifer, 2005; Shepard & Smith, 1988), should be employed. The results from this study suggest that further studies on kindergarten retention--with a particular focus on age--might be of interest. The obvious contradiction in teacher beliefs and school policies on kindergarten student retention warrants inquiry.

References

Barona, A., & Garcia, E. (1990). Children at risk. Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.

Black, S. (2004). Second time around. American School Board Journal, 191(11), 40-42.

Charlesworth, R. (1989). Behind before they start? Deciding how to deal with the risk of kindergarten failure. Young Children, 44, 5-13.

Cosden, M., & Zimmer, J. (1991, April). Age of entry, holding out and kindergarten retention: Differences as a function of gender and ethnicity. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining highly qualified teachers: What does scientifically-based research actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31(9), 13-25.

Gorsuch, R. (1983). Factor analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jimerson, S. (2001). Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implication for practice in the 21st century. School Psychology Review, 30, 420-437.

Mantzicopoulos, P., & Neuharth-Pritchett, S. (1998). Transitional first-grade referrals: An analysis of school-related factors and children's characteristics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 122-133.

McCoy, A., & Reynolds, A. (1991). Grade retention and school performance: An extended investigation. Journal of School Psychology, 37, 273-298.

McGill-Franzen, A., & Allington, R. (1993). Flunk'em or get them classified: The contamination of primary grade accountability data. Educational Researcher, 22(1), 19-22.

Mohl, J., & Slifer, J. (2005). Is retention better than social promotion for students? NEA Today, 23(6), 48.

Morris, D. (2001). Assessing the inplementation of high-stakes reform: Aggregate relationship between retention rates and test results. NASSP Bulletin, 85(629), 18-34.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1988). NAEYC position statement on developmentally appropriate practice in the primary grades, serving 5- through 8-year-olds. Young Children, 43(2), 64-84.

Niklason, L. (1984). Nonpromotion: A pseudoscientific solution. Psychology in the Schools, 21(4), 485-499.

Reynolds, A. (1992). Grade retention and school adjustment: An explanatory analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14(2), 101-121.

Shepard, L., & Smith, M. (1988). Effects of kindergarten retention at the end of first grade. Psychology in the Schools, 24,346-357.

Slavin, R. (2003). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson Learning.

Snyder, T., Hoffman, C., & Geddes, C. (1996). Digest of education statistics, 1996. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education.

Walsh, D., Ellwein, M., Eads, G., & Miller, A. (1991). Knocking on kindergarten's door: Who gets in? Who's kept out? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 89-100.

Comfort O. Okpala

North Carolina A&T State University

Table 1
Study Participants (n=37)

Variables              Number   Percent

Certification Status
Certified                21      56.8
Noncertified             16      43.2

Teaching Experience
Five years or more       24      64.9
Less than five years     13      35.1

Undergraduate Major
Elementary               22      59.5
Middle/High               3       8.1
Special Education         4      10.8
Birth-Kindergarten        4      10.8
Non-Education             4      10.8

Gender
Female                   27      73.0
Male                     10      27.0

Race
Caucasian                21      56.0
African American         16      43.2

Table 2
Qualitative Themes

Themes               Rate (%)

Academic Ability       87.3
Attendance             78.1
Social Maturity        73.5
Emotional Maturity     72.5

Table 3
Results From Varimax Factor Analysis (Certification Status)

Factor Variables               Certified     Noncertified

                               M      SD     M      SD

Retention Benefits             3.17   0.71   4.46   0.30
Support for Retention Policy   3.02   0.68   3.14   0.71
Rigorous Curriculum            4.30   0.45   3.98   0.55

*** Higher number is an indication of higher perception.

Table 4
Results From Varimax Factor Analysis (Teaching Experience)

Factor Variables               Five or More Years   Less Than
                                                    Five Years

                                  M      SD         M      SD

Retention Benefits                3.44   0.64       4.34   0.47
Support for Retention Policy      3.04   0.68       3.15   0.72
Rigorous Curriculum               4.44   0.48       3.86   0.68

*** Higher number is an indication of higher perception.