The most important steps in the making of the missilery topics at Peter the Great Strategic Missile Forces Military Academy.

On December 7, 2005, the SMF Military Academy named after Peter the Great marked its 185th anniversary. During its existence, the academy evolved as the leading military higher education establishment with the glorious work history. The activity of the academy scientists and educators was closely linked with the evolution and development of the missile and artillery weapons.

From the 17th century to this date, the history of the Russian missile weaponry is closely linked with artillery. In the first half of the 20th century, the graduates of Peter the Great SMF Military Academy (formerly the Mikhailovskaya Artillery Academy, Comrade Dzerjinsky Military Technical Academy, F.E. Dzerjinsky Artillery Engineering Academy and F.E. Dzerjinsky Military Academy) significantly contributed to the scientific and technological progress of missilery theory and practice and missile warfare art. Suffice it to remember the writings of A.D. Zasyadko, the inventor of the first Russian combat rockets (1815-1817), K.I. Konstantinov, the founder of experimental rocket dynamics (the 50s of the 19th century), M.M. Pomortsev, the pioneer in solving the problem of rocket stability by using the most ingenious stabilizers and by making the rocket spin in flight (1902-1905), N.V. Gerasimov, who pioneered with the gyro-stabilized rockets (1908), I.P. Grave, who was the first to use pyroxylin smokeless powder as rocket fuel (1915), G.E. Langemak, the designer of the rocket projectiles fuelled with smokeless sustained-combustion powder (1934-1937), B.S. Petropavlovsky, the director (until his death in 1933) of the Gas Dynamic Laboratory--Russia's state-owned R & D organization, which invented the first antitank rocket launchers and the first turboprop antitank projectiles. B.S. Petropavlovsky proposed to use the jet-propelled projectiles as aircraft weapons (the idea was implemented in 1937, when the Soviet pilots pioneered with the rocket weapons in the Khalkhin-Gol battlefield).

The importance of the rocket weapons, emphasized during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, required the organization of the full-fledged training of the missile engineers. The mission was assigned to the military academy, where the training of the missile engineers was renewed in 1944 (the first attempt was made in 1932-1937). Prof. Yakov Markovich Shapiro, the talented educator and foremost authority in the design of the solid-propellant rocket engines (SPRE) was appointed head of the rocket weaponry chair. Twelve months later, the military academy witnessed the formation of the rocketry department consisting of the rocket weapons department and the rocket projectiles control devices department. These departments are the genuine cornerstones of rocket education. P.N. Kuleshov, the academy graduate and renowned commander, was appointed head of the rocket department.

The decision to train the students at the SMF Military Academy and to conduct, at the same time, the R & D programs for the solid-propellant and liquid-propellant rocket engines was positively right. From 1945 to 1953, 18 major research programs were implemented in the rocket domain. Among them: "Rocket Aerodynamics" and "Gasdynamics of the Rocket Combustion Chamber" (the group of authors headed by Prof. F.I. Frankel), "The Theory and Design Methods for the Control Devices and Control Systems of Long-Range Guided Missiles and Warheads" (D.A. Pogorelov, M.D. Artamonov, G.L. Tarasov, G.P. Molotkov and Ye.M. Gorbatov), "The Fundamentals of Long-Range Missile Building Mechanics" (N.I. Bezukhov), "Gunpowder Rocket Engines" (Ya.M. Shapiro), "The Methods for the Engineering Design of Fuses for Gunpowder Rocket Engines" (the program headed by Prof. G.M. Tretyakov).

Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the well-known designer, thought that "the success of the undertaking requires first and foremost the reliable high-performance rocket engine." (1) The academy scientists supported the idea, and in 1958 the department of rocket engines came into being, headed by Ye.B. Volkov, the outstanding scientist and educator, who is the authority on combustion engineering, rocket engine design and control theory. The rocket engine department undertook the training of the cadets and the implementation of the R & D programs for all types of rocket engines (RE). Ten years later, the department was renowned for seven doctoral dissertations, whose conclusions and recommendation were widely used in training, and also noticeably influenced the development of the various types of rocket engines. The department is renowned for the fundamental treatises and manuals on the dynamics of liquid-propellant engines (published in the USSR in 1963), a two-volume edition on the theory, construction and design of liquid-propellant engines (1966), on the dynamics of solid-propellant engines (1962), and also for the first training manual, published in the Soviet Union, on non-chemical rocket engines (1968). The departmental R & D results were used in the construction of medium-range missiles (R-12, R-14, RSD-10), and also of intercontinental missiles (R-16, R-9A, R-36, UR-100).

The science school in the powder and explosives domain and in the theory of combustion and explosion was formed in the academy as early as the 19th century. The R & D results of the several generations of the academy scientists culminated in the fundamental treatises by I.V. Tishunin: Physical and Chemical Processes in Firing a Round (1954), and Powders and Blasting Charges (1958). From the middle of 1958, the academy was in the forefront of the systemic R & D programs concerning mixed solid fuel combustion processes. A special focus was made on fuel catalyzing and inhibiting additives (N.K. Yegorov, V.I. Tsutsuran, G.Ye. Fedorchenko, M.D. Parshin and others). In the 1960s, more than ten effective catalysts were recommended for practical use to control the combustion velocity of the mixed solid fuels based on various combustible and bounding substances. A number of those catalysts were used in the production of weapons. One of the R & D programs of the academy relates to the combustion instability of solid fuel charges and of the rate of combustion of imperfect charges (Yu.V. Nikolayev and A.V. Kolotilov). The manual Solid Rocket Fuels (1965), written by the group of authors including: I.V. Tishunin, A.I. Lapin, V.M. Lunin, V.F. Sirotinsky, D.S. Starodubtsev, and A.S. Chugainov, played the important role in the study of rocket fuel properties. The theoretical and practical recommendations of the academy scientists in the area of solid fuels underlie the development of the solid-propellant rocket engines (SPRE) for the guided missile systems RT-2, RT-2P, RSD-10, RT-2PM.

The manual The Theory of Explosive Substances, written in 1951-1953, by F.A. Baum, K.P. Stanyukovich and B.I. Shekhter, was important for the development of munitions and the pyroautomatic systems for missilery. Later, the same authors wrote the treatise The Physics of Explosion, published in 1959. A new stage in the study of the physics of explosion began in the academy from 1958 after the construction of the new laboratory building (the armored chamber). In the short space of time, this lab was fitted out with modern equipment, and with the unique instruments and devices built by using the academy own resources to study fast processes. In 1962, B.I. Shekhter worked out the consistent system of recommendations for the optimization of propellant charges and for the substantiation of the potential use of experimental dependencies in the assessment of the fragmentation and destruction effects of explosive elements. He put forward a number of engineering dependencies in the determination of criteria for detonation energized under the impact load of explosives. Shekhter's findings and the R & D programs implemented by the scholars of this science school underlie the design of the various types of munitions.

In designing nuclear-missile weapons, much attention is paid to the improvement of nuclear and thermonuclear bursting charges. The solution of this problem was largely contributed to by V.S. Sulakvelidze and P.P. Ganichev, and by their colleagues and followers: V.K. Maksimov, N.D. Avdeyev, A.N. Denisenko, G.G. Skiba, and A.A. Lyubomudrov. Using the achievements of nuclear physics, aerodynamics, materials science and thermophysics, they noticeably contributed to the creation of methodological techniques for the evaluation of weapons resistance to various physical disturbing factors, to the investigation of aggregate characteristics in the structure and componentry of munitions compounded with nuclear and thermonuclear explosives on the basis of aeroballistic, tensile and combustion engineering. The efforts of scientists were aimed at designing powerful explosive charges with reduced mass-and-size characteristics, the light framework of warheads and compact and reliable elements of the contact initiation system.

The late 1940s and early 1950s witnessed the rapid development of automatic control theory and engineering both in this country and abroad. In this regard, the scientists of the academy were among pioneers of rocket automatic control. In 1946-1947, the academy organized a number of training courses, which were conducted by such scientists as S.M. Osovets, A.M. Letov, A.A. Feldbaum, V.A. Ilyin and others. For ten years after 1948, the training course prepared by A.V. Solodov dealt with the theory and design of control systems for long-range guided rocket projectiles. Two years later, the similar training course related to antiaircraft missiles was conducted by M.D. Artamonov. It will be observed that from 1949, for the first time in domestic instrument-making practice, the academy applied and conducted training in control system design methods, including logarithmic frequency-response characteristics as their advanced branch at that time. A.V. Solodov's and M.D. Artamonov's findings underlie the control systems designed for the first rockets R-l, R-2, R-5M and R-7A. The general science school formed itself in automatic control theory (A.A. Feldbaum, A.V. Solodov, V.N. Zakharov, A.S. Shatalov, G.P. Molotkov) encompassing such areas as statistical and frequency methods, structural analysis, simulation, etc.

Concurrently with the emergence of modern missilery, the academy scientists largely contributed to the development of control systems and their elements. In 1950-1951, A.A. Feldbaum and A.V. Solodov designed the first electronic simulation facilities in the USSR, which enabled to address automatic system design problems in the qualitatively new manner. In 1950, Ye.M. Gorbatov proposed and developed, together with O.M. Nudelman (NII-885), the two-axis-controlled method based on the use of two integrating elements, which measured apparent velocity in the active trajectory phase by two spatially fixed directions. In 1964, Ye.M. Gorbatov proposed the original principle of free trajectory rocket control--the on-going ballistic programming principle. His followers, V.D. Mogilevsky and M.M. Korotenin, developed the ideas of Prof. Gorbatov. G.L. Tarasov designed and tested magnetic amplifiers for ballistic missile automatic stabilization control (1950), G.P. Molotkov proposed the original astatic stabilization channel for long-range missiles (1952), A.V. Solodov and Yu.F. Prokhorov developed the computation method for missile stabilization correction circuits (1952).

A lot of work was done by P.S. Melkozerov for the development of steering actuator theory, later set forth in the treatises Actuators in Automatic Control Systems (1966) and Power Computation of Automatic Control Systems (1968). A.S. Shatalov worked out the controlled system investigation methods, based on the Laplace transformation, and computation methods for AC stabilization circuits. In his treatise, N.A. Andreyev addressed and solved the problem of the optimal dynamic system determined by complex statistical criteria (e.g., the maximum target engagement criterion), and his Correlation Theory of Optimal Statistical Systems (published in 1966) raises a number of new problems of automation control theory, namely, the optimizing control methods for optimal systems and the systems with decision-making devices, the system design according to non-diverging target tolerance error probability. The scientists working in this area largely contributed to the design and improvement of preprogrammed guidance systems for the missile weapons of the second generation.

Since 1951, B.I. Nazarov has been engaged in the successful designing of gyroscopic instruments for missile ACS and navigation systems. He applied frequency and operator methods to study gyrosystem dynamics, which was novel in the gyroscopic theory. Subsequently, his followers developed the high-speed spinup method for gyroscopes that drastically reduced the guidance system prestarting time. Under Nazarov's stewardship, the first azimuth direction keepers were designed on the basis of attitude gyroscopes, together with the development of design principles for the autonomous azimuth guidance of the missile-borne gyro reference system, which is used practically in all types of modern missiles.

In 1956, A.V. Solodov was the first among world scientists to develop the theory of the time-varying systems. (2) The investigations of the applied aspects of the theory of information and other areas of radio-engineering underlie yet another science school fostered by him.

A.A. Feldbaum was also the first to develop the fundamental treatise concerning the application of the computing devices to the control systems, which was published in 1959. Subsequently, these aspects were developed in the treatise of V.N. Zakharov and V.T. Kochetkov. The investigations of V.N. Zakharov concerned the development of the assessment method for the status parameters of the synthesis of linear multi-loop discrete automatic control systems under complete or incomplete information about the object state. V.T. Kochetkov investigates in his treatise the algorithmic methods for the synthesis of digital control systems: the "statistical units" method and the "immediate statistical optimization" method. The ideas of this science school were embodied in the design of the missile-borne digital computing machines for the missile systems of the third and forth generation.

The academy actively participated in the first R & D work for the space program, which was implemented by the MOD organizations in conformity with the regulation of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers. The section dealing with the spacecraft (SC) control systems (headed by Prof. A.S. Shatalov) set forth the methods for their orientation and attitude control, investigated the SC dynamics and SC guidance methods, provided the methods for the engineering synthesis of their control system under accidental exposures, studied thrust vector control in the attaining of the preset terminal conditions, formulated the law of control and the terminal conditions for various gravitational interferences, solved the problem of the optimal control of the close-up of two spacecraft.

In the domain of aerodynamics and ballistics, it was essential to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics of the objects moving at high speed (for Mach numbers M>3), to develop the trajectory computation methods given the limited controlled flight phase and the inaccurate knowledge of the earth's configuration parameters, its gravitational field, the atmospheric characteristics and their fluctuations, to select the rational missile control programs, the design structure and stage separation, to solve the basically novel problem of the missile cone atmospheric re-entry under the extreme effects of forward deceleration and high temperatures in the zone of the re-entry vehicle.

Profound investigation was also required concerning the control theory of the aerodynamically unstable objects with the pronounced missile-body elastic modes and slush effects in the missile tanks. The solution of these complex tasks was promoted by the fundamental research results obtained by the academy scientists headed by Prof. D.A. Pogorelov, Prof. G.P. Leonov and Prof. B.N. Fedotov. In conjunction with the NII-4 employees, and by using the NII-4 and academy lab facilities and test bases (the four aerodynamic tunnels, which allowed to study the pre-sonic, trans-sonic and super-sonic movement of the main bodies), a great deal of the experimental work was done with the missile and re-entry vehicle models.

The academy scientists and graduates were the trailblazers in devising the methods for experimental determination and analysis of missile and spacecraft movement. N.P. Buslenko, academy graduate, was one of the first researchers, who addressed the challenging task of processing the measurement information obtained from the optical measuring devices.

In the 1960s, a considerable amount of R & D work was done in connection with the development of the problem-solving methods for the analysis of flying vehicles. The treatise of Yu.A. Borisevich (1961) dealt with the methods for the experimental determination of the re-entry vehicle movement in the contact with the Earth atmosphere. The investigations by V.P. Zelenenky, I.I. Ryzhankov, V.N. Brandin, B.I. Sukhoruchenkov, A.A. Vassilyev, A.V. Tumakov, and S.Ya. Vilenkin have become prominent in this direction. The scientific principles developed by the ballistic experts were used in the design of the intercontinental missiles fitted out with the multiple independent re-entry vehicles.

In 1967, the academy initiates the writing of the first manual for missile and spacecraft in-flight tests, which was soon completed by S.T. Khudyakov, B.F. Zhdanyuk and V.N. Brandin and published in 1968. Besides the students and cadets, the manual was widely used on the test grounds, by the command-and-measurement complex, R & D establishments and design bureaus.

It will be observed that the Government often entrusted the academy graduates with the chairing of the state acceptance commissions for the weapons designed to ensure the protection and sovereignty of this country. Among them are: M.I. Nedelin, P.A. Degtyarev, M.G. Grigoryev, A.I.Sokolov, A.I. Semyonov, F.P. Tonkikh, Ye.B. Volkov, G.N. Malinovsky, Yu.A. Yashin, F.Ye. Alpaidze, A.A. Vassilyev, K.V. Gerchik, A.A. Karas, K.A. Kerimov, A.A. Maksimov, V.L. Ivanov, L.I.Volkov, A.I. Nesterenko, G.F. Odintsov, N.D. Yakovlev.

At present, Peter the Great Strategic Missile Forces Military Academy is the backbone higher educational establishment of the missile forces, which provides the high educational level of the missile officers. In 1959 by decision of the higher government authorities, the academy was attached to the new military service--the Strategic Missile Forces. With the transfer of the academy to this military service, the departments and the chairs are reformed according to the new tasks, the training-and-material base is renewed and enlarged, the training center was laid out outside Moscow, the computer center and several R & D labs were commissioned, and the technical facilities and computer technologies are increasingly used in training and research.

In 1961, the ballistics department was transformed into the command-and-engineering department, and the correspondence department was set up on the basis of the existing two sections to provide training in all majoring specialties. In 1967, the two-year command department was set up in place of the command-and-engineering department. In the same year, the engineering departments, besides officers, started to enroll entrants from the regular military service and the secondary school graduates. As a result, the academy evolved as the two-tier multi-field higher educational establishment.

The important role in the undergoing transformation was played by the academy chief Col. Gen. G.F. Odintsov (Marshal of Artillery from 1968) and his deputy Lt. Gen. G.M. Tretyakov. In the reminiscences of those who worked and studied in the academy, they managed to establish the organizational structure that remains unchanged till now. Training became deeply research-oriented, especially in the area of the intensive training methods, technical facilities and computers.

Since 1962 to the present, more that 40 R & D development programs were carried out in the academy under the organization of training and planning. Among those, such R & D programs as "Plan", "Methods", "Training", "Department Head", "Implementation" and many others.

The enormous contribution to the training of the cadets was made by the renowned scientists and engineers of the RSFSR: Prof. A.F. Golovnin, Prof. S.N. Kapustin, Prof. I.V. Tishunin, Prof. Ya.M. Shapiro, Prof. I.N. Ananyev, Prof. E.A. Gorov, and also the galaxy of the then young scientists, professors and assistant professors: M.I. Yemelin, L.I. Karpov, D.A. Pogorelov, M.F. Sa-musenko, M.I. Kopytov, V.S. Sulakvelidze, A.S. Shatalov, M.D. Artamonov, A.A. Ilyina, Ye.A. Karpovich and others. Especially noteworthy is the role of two retired Lieutenant Generals, who formerly headed NII-4, both of them bearing the name of Volkov. For thirty years out of his employment record, Ye.B. Volkov, the Hero of Socialist Labor, developed the new military science school--the weaponry theory; together with his followers and students, he worked out the basic forecasting and MBO principles of the evolvement, development and improvement of the weapon systems and complexes, which provide the country's armed forces capability and readiness, and also the new research and training domain--the weapons theory. Important contribution to the development of the engineering problems of strategic stability and conversion was made and continues to be made by L.I. Volkov, merited science and engineering expert of the RSFSR, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Substantial contribution was made by the academy graduates to the development of the armaments for other military services. Among them: M.I. Nenashev, Ye.I. Yurasov, V.A. Chernorez, V.I. Korolyov, I.A. Fabrikov, and L.M. Leonov.

In December 1970, in connection with the 150th anniversary and for the achievements in training, the academy was awarded the Order of the October Revolution. At the same time, many generals and officers were awarded the orders and medals. On April 8, 1972, the academy received its full appellation--The Order of Lenin, the Order of the October Revolution, the Order of Suvorov Military Academy named after F.F. Dzerjinsky.

The import role in enhancing the teaching skills of the young instructors belonged to the academic courses, which were transformed for the career development department in November 1988.

The operational-and-tactical schools of the academy trained many prominent military commanders, among them: General of the Army Yu.A. Yashin and General of the Army V.N. Yakovlev, Col. Gen. A.N. Perminov, Col. Gen. V.A. Boly-atko, Col. Gen. V.I. Gerasimov, Col. Gen. I.N. Valynkin, Col. Gen. V.I. Yesin, Col. Gen. A.P. Volkov, Col. Gen. S.G. Kochemasov, Col. Gen. V.A. Muravyov, Col. Gen. N.N. Kotlovtsev, Col. Gen. Yu.I. Plotnikov and others.

Much attention is paid by the academy to the training of scientists: from 1960 to present, 347 doctorate dissertations and 2,306 dissertations of candidate of science were accepted, six Academicians from various academies deliver lectures and engage in R & D together with 90 Professors, 214 Assistant Professors, 105 Doctors of Science and 455 Candidates of Science.

In 1997-2000, Igor Dmitrievich Sergeyev, Marshal of the Russian Federation, the Defense Minister of the Russian Federation, graduate of the academy, commanded the Armed Forces.

The complex tasks to provide the nuclear-missile shield for this country are addressed under the guidance of Col. Gen. Prof. N.Ye. Solovtsov, D.Sc. (Mil.), the academy graduate.

It will be observed that in the 1990s the academy faced a number of objective and subjective difficulties. The transformations in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation did not always promote the quality of the R & D programs and the training of the highly skilled personnel. This notwithstanding, since the year 2000, the military training reform has been gaining momentum. Although, not always were the relevant decisions adopted and implemented in an expeditious manner, there is a clear trend for the improvement of the educational and R & D activity.

Trying to comprehend what was done in the past, we can say with conviction that the academy, throughout its record, was and continues to be the leading scientific and training center for the development of rocket weapons, and the academy officer training is always conducted by keeping reasonably ahead of the armed forces requirements. The graduates of the academy operational-and-tactical schools, who form the backbone of the strategic missile forces officer corps of this country, have been actively achieving, since the 1960s, the nuclear-missile parity of the USSR and the U.S., the all-round space exploration, the development of the advanced technologies, the provision of nuclear security, the prevention of the ecological crises, and the implementation of the conversion programs.

The fundamental education traditions, coupled with the requisite professional officer training application, profound and effective research, accumulated by the previous generations of scientists and educators, are carefully fostered and developed today.

NOTES:

1. S.P. Korolyov, Raketnyi polet v stratosfere, Moscow, 1934.

2. A.V. Solodov, Lineinye sistemy avtomaticheskogo upravlenia s peremennymi parametrami, Fizmatgiz Publishers, Moscow, 1962; idem, Teoriya informatsii i ee priminenie k zadacham avtomaticheskogo upravleniya i kontrolya, Nauka Publishers, Moscow, 1967.

Col. Gen. Yu.F. KIRILLOV

Commander, Peter the Great Strategic Missile Forces Military Academy, Doctor of Military Sciences