The job club redux: a step forward in addressing the career development needs of counselor education students.

The career development needs of counselor education students beginning a professional job search have not been systematically explored. Although job clubs have been linked to positive outcomes, there is no empirical evidence that they meet the needs of this group. The purpose of this study was to examine how counselor education students viewed a proposed job club intervention using focus group data. The findings suggested that students had strong interest in a group that emphasized empowerment and collaboration, offered predictable social support, and provided training in specific job search skills. Implications for counselor education and career counseling practice are discussed.

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A recent position paper issued jointly by the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) and the National Career Development Association (NCDA) strongly recommended that training in career development become a more central aspect of counselor preparation (ACES/NCDA, 2000). The authors of the position paper also advised counselor educators to incorporate "learning by doing" (p. 4) experiential strategies as a means of strengthening the career development portion of their curricula. Notwithstanding the many positive changes in response to this call for action, a review of the literature revealed that there has been limited focus on the career development needs of the very students trained by these programs. Without an empirically based understanding of these needs, it is difficult to design, implement, and evaluate experiential career development strategies targeting this population. We were particularly interested in the sets of skills and types of support required by master's-level counselor education students as they engaged in a search for their first professional position.

Since the concept of job search clubs was introduced by Azrin in 1974 (Azrin, Flores, & Kaplan, 1975), individuals have benefited from these specialized groups geared toward obtaining employment (Stidham & Remley, 1992). Although Azrin and Besalel's (1980) manual, referred to as the "bible" (Bikos & Furry, 1999, p. 31) of job search club interventions, focused on assisting job seekers in general, more specific applications of this efficient and cost-effective methodology have been developed to address the unique needs of subgroups, including welfare recipients (Sterrett, 1998; Stidham & Remley, 1992), unemployed workers (Van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992), people with psychiatric disabilities (Corbiere, Mercier, & Lesage, 2004), and international students (Bikos & Furry, 1999). Results of these studies suggested that job clubs improved job search outcomes. Nevertheless, there continue to be unanswered questions regarding precisely how, why, for whom, and under what circumstances job clubs lead to these positive findings.

To better understand the processes and ingredients that have made job clubs successful, it is necessary to examine briefly the conceptual underpinnings of the model. The theoretical foundation of job clubs draws heavily upon behavioral and social learning constructs. An explicit assumption is that all participants are capable of learning more effective job search skills (Azrin & Besalel, 1980). Rather than using a one-size-fits-all approach, job clubs feature individualized curricula to empower the job seeker through information, training, and practice on specific aspects of the job search; through concrete expectations for tasks to be worked on between scheduled meetings; and through strong social reinforcement. Structured activities include brief lectures, demonstrations, and role plays. A group setting maximizes opportunities for members to learn from and help one another through the sharing of information and experiences and the giving and receiving of constructive feedback. A facilitator works with participants to create a supportive group climate. During a typical series of job club meetings, participants are coached as they develop resumes, cover letters, portfolios, networking strategies, job search plans, and tactics for successful interviewing. They may observe one another in practice interview sessions, which are often videotaped. Participants learn from the comments of a trainer, who reinforces the strengths of each person's performance. Members discuss their ongoing job searches as club leaders and peers offer encouragement and support.

Confidence that is specifically related to one's ability to perform tasks important to the job search process is known as job search or career self-efficacy. In a recent meta-analysis, Kanfer, Wanberg, and Kantrowitz (2001) concluded that higher levels of job search self-efficacy and social support were positively related to more intense job search behavior. Furthermore, individuals who engaged in a more intense job search were more likely to obtain employment. In a study of adults who experienced involuntary job loss, those who received higher levels of social support spent more time and energy looking for new positions (Gowan, Riordan, & Gatewood, 1999). Another investigation (Saks & Ashforth, 1999, 2000) found that among recent university graduates, job hunters who were confident in their ability to perform preparatory and active job search behaviors and who believed that they had control over the outcomes of these activities had lower levels of job search anxiety; were granted more interviews; were offered more jobs; and, overall, conducted a more successful job search. Saks and Ashforth (2003) recommended putting into place career development interventions that strengthen job search self-efficacy.

On the basis of extrapolation from these theoretical and research findings, it is reasonable to hypothesize that a critical factor in the effectiveness of job clubs is their impact on career self-efficacy beliefs and perceived social support. However, empirical studies that test this notion are few in number and, for the most part, were conducted more than a decade ago. Stidham and Remley (1992) reported that welfare recipients enrolled in a job club were more successful in securing employment than were their control group counterparts and those who searched for jobs independently. Receiving praise and encouragement from others and being exposed to positive peer pressure contributed to increased expectations of success in one's job search and to sustained motivation during an often stressful and even demoralizing process (Stidham & Remley, 1992). Van Ryn and Vinokur (1992) found that an intensive job search skills training program carried out with more than 900 unemployed job seekers led to enhanced self-efficacy, which in turn was associated with more job search behaviors and, ultimately, with securing employment. In another study involving job clubs and welfare recipients, Sterrett (1998) suggested that higher placement rates may be accounted for by increased self-efficacy and independence tied to their group involvement. Job club participants engaged in more exploratory behavior were more likely to initiate job searching strategies that they learned in their groups and had more success in obtaining employment. The club's atmosphere of excitement and enthusiasm led participants to experience a sense of hopefulness and empowerment (Sterrett, 1998).

Although job clubs have been used extensively with diverse groups, most applications have been reactive as opposed to proactive interventions for populations with special problems or challenges. Their focus more often has been on remediation than on enhancement of skills. Questions remain as to whether these results can be generalized to a proactive implementation of job clubs with a highly skilled, well-educated postbaccalaureate population about to enter the professional job market. An exception was an evaluation of a job club (Bikos & Furry, 1999) for international students who were graduating seniors or graduate students finishing their degree. Participants valued their involvement in the six approximately 90-minute group meetings that occurred throughout the academic year. The international students indicated that they gained skills in job search activities such as writing resumes and cover letters and going on job interviews. They appeared to benefit from information, training, practice, and support and felt more confident about their job search skills. Preintervention-postintervention comparisons reflected significant gains in career self-efficacy. In another article dealing with a highly educated sample, Campbell, Angelique, BootsMiller, and Davidson (2000) shared their experiences about their participation in a job club that met during the final year of their doctoral studies in community psychology. The four students and a faculty mentor convened biweekly in the fall semester and weekly during the winter session. The students observed that the group helped them in developing specific job search skills such as using information effectively, developing networks, producing effective job search correspondence, going on job interviews, and making decisions about which jobs to apply for and which to accept when offers were presented. They coached one another on ways to improve their teaching demonstrations and presentation of case material. Sharing resources and exchanging feedback in a cohesive group setting made their job searches more manageable and successful (Campbell et al., 2000).

Although these results on job clubs with highly educated participants are somewhat promising, they must be considered preliminary and interpreted with caution. Both studies had small homogeneous samples and lacked a control group, thereby limiting generalizability and raising questions about the internal validity of the studies. To date, there have been no known systematic evaluations of the use of job clubs with master's-level counselor education students. Given the gaps in the existing knowledge base, it would be premature to assume that this intervention adequately addresses their needs.

Brainstorming sessions for a job club at our institution included a partnership of counselor education faculty and the college career center. Prior to implementation and conducting a larger scale study into its efficacy, we believed that it was necessary to gather information on the students' perspectives and preferences regarding a proposed job club intervention. The purpose of the present qualitative study was to examine the level of interest, opinions, and ideas of master's-level counselor education students concerning their participation in a proposed job club. This approach enabled us to gather suggestions from students regarding the structure, content, and process of the club. Students were asked to reflect on how this group career development experience can best meet their needs and to identify potential benefits, risks, and obstacles.

Method

Focus Groups

In preparation for a larger study on the impact of job clubs on counselor education students, focus group methodology was used to contribute to our understanding of the utility of the intervention from the perspective of those who would be directly involved in the experience. Focus groups have a lengthy, well-grounded history in qualitative research as a means of gathering rich descriptive information about the thoughts and viewpoints of participants regarding a particular issue (Fontana & Frey, 2000). Although there is usually a predetermined set of questions composing an intensive semistructured group interview, the process is flexible and open enough to enable people to express themselves freely and openly in their own words. Given the qualitative nature of the data, focus groups are not suited to test hypotheses or to generalize findings to the population at large (Krueger & Gasey, 2000). In addition to gathering information regarding student interest in participating in the job club intervention, we hoped to identify and better understand themes such as the students' prioritization of job club topics; their perceived needs, strengths, opportunities, and weaknesses regarding their job search; and their thoughts and feelings about potential barriers, such as dealing with the possibility that other participants may be vying for the same position.

Participants

Participants were recruited for the focus group from a summer session class in career development. The course is a requirement to obtain a master's degree in counselor education. All 10 students (9 women, 1 man) enrolled in the course participated in the focus group voluntarily without incentive. Of the female participants, 2 were African American and 7 were European American. The male participant was European American. All of the participants were native English speakers. The average age of focus group members was 29.70 years (SD = 8.27). Seven students had been in the program for 1 year or less; 3 reported entering the program between 2 and 5 years ago. Five of the participants indicated a preference in eventually obtaining a job as a school counselor; 1 was interested primarily in a mental health counseling career; and 4 were open to the possibility of working in a school, mental health setting, or human service agency. The participants were representative of the population of graduate students in this particular counselor education program in that their demographic characteristics and career preferences mirrored those of their student colleagues.

Procedure

Institutional review board approval was obtained from the college of the researchers (the authors of this article). Several steps were taken to reduce demand characteristics and other internal validity threats. The topics of job clubs and job search strategies had not yet been covered in lectures or class discussions. Neither researcher had any involvement as an instructor in the course. Furthermore, it was emphasized that participation in the focus group was voluntary and that students could opt out at any time without penalty. After a welcome, introductions, and statements regarding the purpose of the study and ethical considerations, participants were provided with a brief explanation of the focus group procedure and background on the job search club concept. Participants gave consent for the focus group to be audiotaped. Two 1-hour group sessions facilitated by the first author were conducted over a 5-day period with all 10 participants in attendance at both meetings. Both sessions were attended by a recorder who took notes on the proceedings and documented observations. The participants were asked a series of questions related to their interest in participation in a job club, topics they would like covered, concerns and barriers to the group's success, and desired outcomes. The complete list of questions appears in the Appendix.

Data Analysis

Transcriptions from the audiotape and the recorder's notes were analyzed by the researchers independently to reduce potential bias. Themes and patterns were identified for each question separately and then across questions. Tally sheets were developed to summarize the data and to facilitate condensing a large amount of information into major themes. A consensus was easily obtained in the rare instances of minor differences in interpretation.

Findings

Interest Level, Reasons for Participating, and Priorities

All 10 focus group participants had a high level of interest in participating in a job club. They cited reasons such as "working collectively and collaboratively," "brainstorming by talking together in group," "getting ideas and pointers from others," "dealing with worries about finding a job and concerns about relocating," "sharing information and experiences," "encouraging and motivating each other," "having a chance to practice networking and interviewing skills," and "giving and receiving feedback." The topics or areas that were considered most important were networking, interviewing strategies, and resume and portfolio development. Focus group members expressed less interest in learning about online career resources and developing a job search plan. One participant recommended that an electronic discussion board "would enable us to keep each other updated on progress between groups." There was a great deal of enthusiasm about the prospect of establishing connections with alumni mentors. Suggestions included bringing in graduates of the counselor education program and other practicing counselors to give tips about conducting an effective job search and working with alumni to establish a job referral network.

Scheduling and Membership

One group member suggested that "everyone should be pretty much in the same place in the program"; mixing beginning and advanced students was seen as problematic. There was a consensus that the group should meet for an academic year (e.g., it would begin in the fall for students planning a spring graduation). Roughly half of the focus group participants preferred biweekly club meetings, whereas the other half wanted monthly meetings with the option to schedule additional sessions as needed. All participants voiced a preference for a small, closed group of 10 to 12 students. There were varied opinions about whether the club should be homogeneous or mixed with respect to program (school, mental health counseling, and human service agency). One participant indicated that "the customary timing for filling school counselor positions and the specialized content areas covered in interviews" made it advantageous to have a separate group for school counseling candidates.

Cooperation Versus Competition

Participants did not view as a major obstacle the possibility that club members may be competing for the same limited number of positions. One participant suggested "setting up ground rules at the beginning and re-visiting the issue periodically in order to maintain a climate of collaboration and reciprocity." Another believed that "if we communicate openly, there will be a greater comfort level in the group." Finally, one participant said, "Group cohesion should bring out a willingness to help each other do one's best." There was lively discussion regarding identifying one's preferences and talents in order to be strategic about the positions for which one applies. For example, a student who has demonstrated strengths and interest in working with middle school children and who prefers a rural location may be dissatisfied with a position in an inner-city high school. One participant shared the concern that "we may be hurting our chances if too many people from our program apply for the same opening."

Concerns and Desired Outcomes

Several participants expressed concerns about potential conflicts with other academic, work, and personal commitments. There were also questions about the value of the job club and whether the group would meet the specific needs of the participants. However, the predominant themes relating to desired outcomes were "feeling empowered," "expanding my network of contacts," "decreasing my anxiety about interviewing," "making good connections with group members," and "building my confidence that I can do it by hearing about other people's successes." The clarity and convergent themes derived from these statements led us to propose a change to the name of the group from the somewhat anachronistically quaint "job club" to a more modern and better fitting nomenclature: professional empowerment and networking group.

Discussion

Findings based on focus group data suggested that counselor education students were highly interested in and envisioned significant benefits from participation in a job search club that emphasized themes of empowerment and collaboration. They voiced a strong need to enhance their skills, in particular those pertinent to networking, interviewing, and resume and portfolio development. In addition, they valued opportunities for predictable and consistent social support, to give and receive feedback, and to learn from and motivate one another in their job search activities. It was encouraging that they believed that clear expectations and a commitment to open communication, generosity, cooperation, and sharing could foster a "win-win" situation, overcoming possible conflicts related to competition for the same job openings.

Implications for Counselor Educators and Career Professionals

Counselor education students are likely to have some exposure to the job club model as part of their graduate studies in vocational counseling and career development, yet only from an academic perspective. Providing students with direct experience as a participant or client could enhance career self-efficacy, provide social support, develop and improve upon a wide range of job search skills, and ultimately increase one's chances of securing one's first professional position. Furthermore, we believe that if counselor education students find this intervention to be helpful in their own career development, they may be more likely to use similar strategies with their students and clients in the future. Job club "graduates" will be able to draw from their firsthand experiences in teaching others how to conduct an effective job search.

Counselor educators should confer with their colleagues and students to determine if there is sufficient interest and commitment to implementing this group intervention. Serving as group facilitators could enable faculty to offer unique and valuable support and mentoring as their students make the transition to professional employment. Students can receive feedback and be provided with modeling that enable them to speak with greater expertise and confidence about themselves and important counseling issues, such as one's personal counseling theory, presentation of case material, multicultural competencies, and ethics. The group can complement the classroom learning environment by challenging students to become more reflective, insightful practitioners. Finally, it strikes us that planning and implementing a job club intervention present counselor education faculty with an exciting possibility to partner with career center professionals in a collaborative effort to better serve their students.

Limitations and Future Research

This is a qualitative study that consisted of a small, nonrandom sample of counselor education graduate students, most of whom were beginning their studies in a master's program. Although the sample was somewhat diverse, it included only 1 male participant and did not include international or Latino/a students. Their viewpoints may not be reflective of counselor education students enrolled in doctoral programs or more advanced master's-level students. Because responses were given in a group setting, it is possible that the similarity of opinions expressed could have resulted from social factors such as a desire to fit in or to avoid conflict.

Findings may also be limited to the extent that both authors of this article believed in the potential benefits of job clubs for counselor education graduate students. This could have influenced the formulation of focus group questions and how the data were interpreted. Therefore, it is recommended that this study be replicated by other researchers with diverse samples.

Nevertheless, this study represents an important first step in the planning, implementation, and systematic evaluation of a professional empowerment and networking group that was highly sought after by participants in our focus group. This data-driven approach enables the career counseling practitioner to tailor the club to the needs, preferences, and desired outcomes identified by students. A larger scale quantitative study that includes a "no treatment" comparison group and psychometrically sound assessment tools is necessary to test the hypothesized effectiveness of the job club intervention with respect to its impact on career self-efficacy, perceived social support, and job search outcomes of master's-level counselor education students. Further investigations of the utility of job clubs and other experiential career development strategies will enhance efforts at teaching, modeling, and providing best practice interventions to counselor education students.

References

Association for Counselor Education and Supervision/National Career Development Association. (2000). Preparing counselors for career development in the new millennium. Retrieved October 12, 2006, from http://www.ncda.org/pdf/CommissionPaper.pdf

Azrin, N., & Besalel, V. (1980). Job club counselor's manual: A behavioral approach to vocational counseling. Baltimore: University Park Press.

Azrin, N., Flores, T., & Kaplan, S. (1975). Job-finding club: A group-assisted program for obtaining employment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 13, 17-27.

Bikos, L., & Furry, T. (1999). The job search club for international students: An evaluation. The Career Development Quarterly, 48, 31-44.

Campbell, R., Angelique, H., BootsMiller, B., & Davidson, W. (2000). Practicing what we preach: Integrating community psychology into the job search process. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 19, 33-43.

Corbiere, M., Mercier, C., & Lesage, A. (2004). Perceptions of barriers to employment, coping efficacy, and career search efficacy in people with mental illness. Journal of Career Assessment, 20, 1-18.

Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (2000). The interview: From structured questions to negotiated text. In N. K. Denzin & U. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 645-672). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gowan, M., Riordan, C., & Gatewood, R. (1999). Test of a model of coping with involuntary job loss following a company closing. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 75-86.

Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C., & Kantrowitz, T. (2001). Job search and employment: A personality-motivational analysis and meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 837-855.

Krueger, R. A., & Gasey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Saks, A., & Ashforth, B. (1999). Effects of individual differences and job search behaviors on the employment status of recent university graduates. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 335-349.

Saks, A., & Ashforth, B. (2000). Change in job search behaviors and employment outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 277-287.

Saks, A., & Ashforth, B. (2003). Is job search related to employment quality? It all depends on fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 646-654.

Sterrett, E. (1998). Use of a job club to increase self-efficacy: A case study of return to work. Journal of Employment Counseling, 35, 69-78.

Stidham, H., & Remley, T. (1992). Job club methodology applied to workforce setting. Journal of Employment Counseling, 29, 69-76.

Van Ryn, M., & Vinokur, A. D. (1992). How did it work? An examination of the mechanisms through which an intervention for the unemployed promoted job search behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 577-597.

APPENDIX

Focus Group Questions

 1. What is your immediate goal after graduation?
 2. On a scale of 1 to 5 with 5 being the highest level, how interested
    are you in participating in a job search club and why?
 3. When and how often should the group meet? What is the optimal size
    of the group?
 4. What topics or areas would you like to see included in the group
    (e.g., resume and portfolio development, cover letter and other job
    search correspondence, interviewing strategies, networking,
    exploring online career resources, use of the college career
    center's services, developing a job search plan, exchanging tips/
    leads with group members)?
 5. If you could design the club, what would be your priorities?
 6. What do you think about the group having a Web site, including a
    discussion board?
 7. What do you think about the possibility of alumni connections/
    mentors?
 8. In this type of group, there is a strong possibility that
    participants may have interest in applying for the same job opening.
    What ideas do you have about fostering a climate of cooperation and
    collaboration rather than competition?
 9. Other concerns/reservations about participating in this type of
    group?
10. What outcomes would have to occur for you to feel the group was
    worthwhile for you?
11. Other issues that we haven't talked about and you'd like to raise
    before we end?

Michael E. Rutter, Department of Counseling and Human Services, Canisius College; James V. Jones, Career Center, Canisius College. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael E. Rutter, Canisius College, Department of Counseling and Human Services, 2001 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14208 (e-mail: [e-mail]).