The impact of ethnic identification on student learning in the HBCU classroom.

This study augments immediacy literature in two ways: first, by exploring an Historically Black University (HBCU) as a communication context; and second, by employing a multidimensional measure of Black identity and teacher immediacy in the HBCU classroom. The findings suggest that the Black identity dimensions have an influence on student perceptions of verbal and nonverbal immediacy and learning outcomes with respect to instructor ethnicity. The findings also suggest that African American instructors are more immediate than their Euro-American counterparts. The findings further suggest that African American students have a stronger identification with their African American instructors than they do with their Euro-American instructors in the HBCU classroom.

Numerous studies have found a positive relationship between teacher immediacy and student affective and cognitive learning (c.f., Andersen, Norton & Nussbaum, 1981: Richmond; Rodriguez, Plax, & Kearney, 1996). While scholars have investigated the relationship between teacher immediacy and student learning, they have relied on subjects who are primarily White, middle-class members of the American culture. Few studies have examined how immediate instructors impact student learning in the multicultural classroom (McCroskey, Sallinen, Fayer, Richmond, & Barraclough, 1996; Neuliep, 1995).

Studies examining the multicultural dimension of communication in the classroom are categories of race (e.g., African American, White, Asian American, Mexican American, etc.) in communication education research does not account for the variability, which exists between members of the same cultural group. Cultural identity is a multidimensional construct in which race is one of its defining elements (Sellers, Shelton, Cooke, Chavous, Rowley, & Smith, 1998). Sellers et al. contended that racial identity influences "behavior at the level of the situation (molecular level) and exhibit consistency across situations (molar level)" [p. 80]. However, there is no consensus regarding what behaviors and attitudes and dispositions are typically African American. Thus, existing research on Black identity, teacher immediacy, and student learning is limited in understanding HBCUs as a communication context. In this study, we extend immediacy research by examining the impact of Black identity on perceived teacher immediacy and cognitive and affective student learning.

African American Cultural Identity

Majority of the psychological research has traditionally focused on "attitudes of majority toward minority groups at the expense of ethnic identity (Walsh, 2001, p. 172). A century ago, W. E. Dubois argued that the only way Blacks will develop a healthy self-concept within this society is to reconcile the dual nature of their identity. Dubois's concept of "double consciousness" best explains the struggle African Americans experience in dealing with their feeling of "twoness, an American, a Negro, two souls, two thoughts ... two warring ideals" (p. 205). Decades of research have since provided contradictory findings on African Americans' attempts to define themselves in relation to race (Hecht & Ribeau, 1987).

Cross's (1978) Model of Psychological Nigrescence was an important attempt to describe the positive nature of racial identity in the lives of African Americans. The model described the development of racial identity as a stage-like process from self-hatred to self-acceptance. For example, the first stage describes the pre-encounter stage where race is not a relevant part of an individual's identity. The second stage describes the encounter stage where individuals are made aware of their racial identity through racially salient situations. These situations may be positive or negative. The third stage, the immersion/emersion stage, is characterized by a strong endorsement of Afrocentric attitudes at the expense of Eurocentric cultural values. In the final stage, the internationalization stage, individuals achieve an acceptance of and satisfaction with being Black within the larger context of the human race. Helms (1990) developed the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS) in an attempt to quantify the developmental nature of the African American identity.

In the 1990s, researchers emphasized an Afrocentric approach to the study of Black identity (Cross, 1991). This approach was based on the notion that African Americans' sense of self should be explained only in relation to their experiences as African Americans. Baldwin, Brown, and Rackly's (1990) African self-consciousness Scale (ASC) provided a quantifiable measure assessing the importance of one's racial identity. This new cultural critical approach to racial identity addressed more specifically the struggle associated with reconciling what Dubois. A century ago, had labeled African Americans' "double consciousness."

More recently, Sellers, Rowley, Chavous, Shelton, and Smith (1997) developed the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity scale (MIBI) in hope of augmenting Baldwin's quantitative assessment of African American identity. Their research represented an ambitious attempt to measure the complexity of the African American self-concept and its relationship to behaviors. Like the ASC scale, the MIBI posed research challenges. Consequently. Sellers et al. (1998) developed the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI). According to the authors, the MMRI combines both developmental and cultural critical approaches to the study of the African American identity.

The MMRI focuses on cognitions and attitudes associated with individuals' attempts to integrate their status as African Americans into their self-concepts (Sellers et. al., 1998). The MMRI is also based on the assumption that racial identity is multidimensional in nature. That is, the MMRI assumes that African Americans "have a number of hierarchically ordered identities of which race is but one. Racial identity has both stable and situationally specific properties that dynamically account for both behavioral consistency and changeability. Rather than propose a specified set of behaviors to define African American racial identity" (Walsh, 2001, p. 174). Yancey, Aneshensel, and Driscoll (2001) also argue that there is a considerable variation within ethnic groups with regard to ethnic self-perceptions.

Together with the centrality dimension of African American identity, the MMRI consists of four philosophies underlying an individual's ideology. However, in this study. we focus our attention on three ideologies: (1) nationalist ideology emphasizes the uniqueness of being of African descent: (2) assimilationist ideology emphasizes the commonalities between African Americans and the rest of American society: and (3) humanist ideology emphasizes the common features of all humans. The dimensions not only represent different ways in which racial identity manifests itself, but they are also related to different behavioral outcomes. That is, these dimensions "are not mutually exclusive but are manifested across a number of different areas of functioning, including political, economic, social, cultural, inter-group relations, and interaction with the dominant group" (Walsh, 2001, p. 2).

Although the MMRI measures attitudes and values related to feelings about being African Americans, it is also associated with various race-related behaviors. Sellers et al. (1998) found positive relationships between the various scales and subscales of the MMRI and race-related behavioral outcomes. These behaviors include the amount of contact individuals normally have with other racial groups, the race of their best friend, and whether or not they enroll in Black Studies courses. For example, individuals who have greater contact with African Americans are more likely to hold nationalist attitudes, define themselves with respect to race (centrality). and feel positive about African Americans (private regard). Individuals who have greater contacts with Whites are less likely to use race to define themselves or to endorse a nationalist ideology, but are more likely to hold both assimilationist and humanist ideologies. Clearly, racial identity attitudes and values are related to behavioral outcomes (Walsh, 2001). The impact of racial identity on student learning outcomes in relation to the race and immediacy behaviors of their instructors remains to be explored.

Teacher Immediacy

Student learning is clearly linked to immediacy. Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall (1989) summarized all the definitions of immediacy as a "combination of verbal and nonverbal behaviors working together as a system to increase or decrease the degree of physical, temporal, and psychological closeness between individuals" (p. 100).

Studies in education, psychology, and communication have reported important findings for the development of effective teaching strategies. For example, teacher immediacy has been linked positively to student affective and behavioral learning (c.f., Christophel, 1990). Many scholars have reported a positive relationship between immediacy and student cognitive learning and information recall (e.g., Rodriguez. Plax. & Kearney, 1996).

Verbal immediacy behaviors in the classroom increase student affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning. Moreover. student motivation to learn is mediated by affective learning. The impact of immediacy on student learning varies with types of classes (Gorham, 1988). Although teacher immediacy has a positive influence on student learning, it also influences student learning differently in the multicultural classroom. For example. Sanders and Wiseman (1990) have found that while immediate instructors positively influence various ethnic groups, immediacy played a lesser role for African American students than for Euro-American, Asian, and Hispanic students. Cross-cultural studies have supported the mediating role of culture in the relationship between immediacy and student learning (Neuliep, 1995).

Orbe (1995) reminds us that the limited measure of Black identity distorts the heterogeneity among African Americans and favors a universal prototype. The multidimensionality of racial identity and its impact on the various communication dimensions of classroom learning led to the following research question and hypothesis:

   [RQ.sub1]: Do student perceptions of Black identity in relation to
   teacher immediacy differ in classes taught by African American and
   Euro-American instructors?

   [H.sub.1]: The influence of Black identity on students' perceptions
   of cognitive and affective learning will be greater for African
   American instructors than for Euro-American instructors.

Method

Participants

Two hundred thirty nine students from two historically black colleges and universities located in the southern region of the United States participated in this study. Participants described themselves as being Black, African American, African Hispanic, Or Caribbean Black. The sample (104 males, 135 females) consisted of 83 freshmen, 62 sophomores, 49 juniors, and 45 seniors. Ages ranged from 17 to 31 (M =18.78. SD=1.81). Student participation in this study was one means of receiving extra credit from their professors.

Procedure

Subjects were asked to complete Gorham's (1988) 20-item measure of verbal immediacy and Richmond. Gorham, and McCroskey's (1987) 14-item measure of nonverbal immediacy. Participants were asked to indicate the frequency (0= never to 4 = very often) with which the instructor in the class immediately preceding the one in which they completed the instrument used each of the behaviors. Cronbach's alpha for the verbal immediacy scale and the nonverbal immediacy scale was .89 and .81, respectively.

Measures

Black Identity: Subjects completed the centrality and ideology dimensions of the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI). The centrality dimension was selected for the study because race is a defining element of the communication context at HBCUs. Students for whom race is central to their identity are more likely to choose an educational environment that is ethnically convergent than students for whom race is not central to their identity.

The centrality dimension included seven items (i.e., In general, being Black is an important part of my self-image). Each item was measured on a seven-point scale (1 = Strongly Agree to 7 = Strongly Disagree). Cronbach's alpha for the Centrality scale was .77.

Three of the four ideologies identified in the Black identity instrument were included in the questionnaires (i.e., assimilationist, humanist, and nationalist). All items were rated on a seven-point scale (1 = Strongly Agree to 7 = Strongly Disagree). The assimilationist ideology, emphasizing the commonalties between African Americans and the rest of American society, included nine items (i.e., Blacks should strive to be fill members of the American political system). The humanist ideology, emphasizing commonalties among all humans, comprised four items (i.e., Being an individual is more important than identifying oneself as Black). The nationalist ideology, stressing the importance and uniqueness of being of African descent, included eight items (i.e.. Black students are better off going to schools that are controlled and organized by Blacks). Reliabilities for the assimilationist, humanist and nationalist scales were .78, .73, and .72 respectively.

In addition to teacher immediacy and the total Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MMRI) scale, student perceptions of cognitive, affective and behavioral learning were assessed. Participants were asked to respond to two questions (1) on a scale of 0 to 9 = nothing and 9 = You learned more than in any other class You have had, how much have you learned in this class with that teacher? And (2) on a scale of 0 to 9, 0 = nothing more and 9 = more than in any other class you have had, how much do you think you could have learned in the class if you had the ideal instructor? A "learning loss" score was computed by subtracting the score on the first scale from the score on the second scale. Cronbach's alpha for the bipolar affective measures regarding the instructor and the course content were .86 and .83, respectively.

Results

To answer the general research question. descriptive statistics and paired t-tests were conducted to compare instructor ethnicity scores on the Black identity and teacher immediacy scales (see Table 1). Using the Black Identity and immediacy scales for the combined instructor ethnicity sample, several significant differences emerged. The results indicated that African American students perceived having a stronger identification with African American instructors than they did with Euro-American instructors with respect to verbal immediacy and the Black identity: centrality (t(76) = 2.68,p <.01), nationalist (t(176) = 14.99, p < .001), and assimilationist (t(176) = 5.28, p < .001). Finally, the results indicated significant differences in student perceptions of nonverbal immediacy and the Black identity: humanist (t(176) = 2.52, p < .001), nationalist (t(176) = 2.60, p < .001), and assimilationist (t(176)=3.09, p<.01) in classes taught by African American and Euro-American instructors.

The hypothesis guiding this study predicted that the influence of Black identity on students' perceptions of cognitive and affective learning would be greater for African American instructors than for Euro-American instructors. To explore the relative influence Black identity has on student perceptions of cognitive and affective learning linear regression analyses were conducted. The Black identity ideologies were the predictor variables and the indices of cognitive and affective learning were the dependent or criterion variables. The results of the analyses for the African American instructor sample are presented in Table 2. The results for the Euro-American instructor sample are presented in Table 3.

For the African American instructor sample, results indicated that the Black identity ideologies were predictive of perceived cognitive learning F(4, 94) = 3.02, p < .05; teacher affect F(4, 94) = 3.62,p <.0 1; course content F(4, 94) = 5.21, p < .01; though adjusted R's indicated that subscale models explained less of the variance in the Black identity ideologies than in cognitive and behavioral learning outcomes. The model for learning loss F(4, 94) = .684, p > .05 was not statistically significant.

For the Euro-American instructor sample, results indicated that the Black identity dimensions were not predictive of perceived cognitive learning F(4, 82)=.781, p > .05; learning loss F(4, 82) = .133, p > .05: teacher affect F(4.82)= 1.07.p >.05; course content F(4.82)= 2.01. p > .05. All models were not statistically significant.

Discussion

The goal of this study was to extend research in the area of immediacy by examining the effects of Black identity on perceived teacher immediacy and student cognitive and affective learning in relation to instructor ethnicity in the contexts of HBCUs. The general research question addressed the extent to which student perceptions of Black identity in relation to teacher immediacy differed in classes taught by African American and Euro-American instructors. The results indicate significant differences in the way African American students perceived themselves with respect to the racial ideology they espouse and instructor ethnicity and immediacy behaviors. The results also indicate that the way students perceive themselves in terms of racial ideology influenced differentially their perceptions of learning in classes taught by African American and Euro-American instructors.

The results of the study further indicate that African American students' racial identities found stronger support in classes taught by African American instructors. Given the rationale that African American instructors are more immediate than Euro-American instructors (Neuliep, 1995), the findings suggest that the more immediate African American instructors are, the more students identify with them when they espouse an assimilationist, nationalist and humanist ideology. The paired t-tests suggest that student contact with African American instructors was significantly related to their humanist, nationalist and assimilationist ideologies.

Considering that Euro-American instructors are less immediate in their behaviors than their African American counterparts (Neuliep. 1995), African American student expectations may be violated by the lesser immediacy style of their Euro-American instructors in the context of an HBCU. One may suggest that "the greater the extent to which one's racial identity is central to one's core self-construct and the more time one spends in the company of fellow Black people, the better one's psychological health" (Walsh, 2001, p. 182).

Race is a defining element of the communication context at HBCUs and has been a profound determinant of individuals' senses of self-identity and social interactions in academic settings. As the results suggest, African American students for whom race is central to their self-concept (centrality) perceive a stronger identification with their African American instructors than with Euro-American instructors in relation to verbal immediacy.

The study also aimed at investigating the relative influence of Black identity on student perceptions of learning outcomes according to instructor ethnicity. The hypothesis was supported. The regression analyses indicated a meaningful difference in the type of Black identity (ideology) most predictive of learning outcomes. Students reported significant cognitive learning, positive teacher affect, and positive attitude towards course content. As exemplified in this study, cognitive learning and positive teacher affect are significantly influenced by one's Black identity and plays a major role in the African American student-teacher relationship. Neuliep (1995) argues that the student-teacher relationship "is mediated to some degree by culture" (p. 448). The results indicated that in classrooms taught by Euro-American instructors. students did not report significant cognitive and affective learning on the Black identity scales. Moreover, the racial/cultural congruency of the HBCU classroom is likely to enhance students' sense of racial identity that should enhance student cognitive learning. However, the results of the regression analyses seem to suggest that when Euro-American instructors teach African American students in an HBCU context. African American students tend not to identity with them.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study appears to be the first direct attempt to investigate the multidimensionality of race and its impact on student perceptions of teacher immediacy and learning outcomes in an HBCU context. Hence, it is necessary to replicate the study at other HBCUs to establish better construct and predictive validity. To this end, the results of this study must be interpreted with some degree of caution. Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the emerging immediacy literature investigating student perceptions of teacher immediacy and learning outcomes in the context of HBCUs.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Paired t-tests Cultural Identity and
Teacher Immediacy

                                    African American Instructors

Scales                              M                 SD            n

Verbal Immediacy
   Centrality **             2.08 (3.18) (a)     .59 (.72) (b)     94
   Humanist                  2.31 (2.02) (a)     .83 (.73) (b)     94
   Nationalist ***           2.06 (3.38) (a)     .74 (.98) (b)     94
   Assimilationist ***       2.08 (3.21) (a)     .71 (.74) (b)     94

Nonverbal Immediacy
   Centrality                2.46 (2.53) (a)     .59 (.74) (b)     94
   Humanist ***              2.31 (3.13) (a)    1.08 (1.02) (b)    94
   Nationalist ***           2.56 (3.16) (a)     .59 (.72) (b)     94
   Assimilationist **        2.45 (2.98) (a)    1.23 (1.03) (b)    94

                                    Euro-American Instructors

Scales                              M                 SD           n

Verbal Immediacy
   Centrality **             2.81 (1.98) (c)     .68 (.69) (d)     82
   Humanist                  2.58 (1.97) (c)     .80 (.73) (d)     82
   Nationalist ***           4.94 (1.76) (c)    1.35 (1.02) (d)    82
   Assimilationist ***       2.66 (1.62) (c)    1.31 (1.10) (d)    82

Nonverbal Immediacy
   Centrality                2.80 (2.41) (c)    1.07 (1.19) (d)    82
   Humanist ***              3.81 (1.89) (c)    1.08 (1.02) (d)    82
   Nationalist ***           3.58 (2.48) (c)     .53 (.64) (d)     82
   Assimilationist **        3.48 (1.57) (c)     .72 (.78) (d)     82

* p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

No common superscripts indicate mean and SD scores for black identity
scales (1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree)

(a,c) Common superscripts indicate mean scores for immediacy scale
(0 = never to 4 = very often)

(b,d) Common superscripts indicate SDs for immediacy scale.


Table 2
Linear Regression Predicting Cultural Identity on Student Cognitive
and Affective Learning: African American Instructor Sample

                                                    Adj.     Model
Subscales              Beta     t       Sig.     [R.sup.2]    Sig.

Learning
   Centrality         -.057    -.437   p > .05
   Humanist           -.408   -2.822   p < .05      .14      p < .05
   Nationalist         .034    -.261   p < .01
   Assimilationist     .134    1.110   p < .05

Learning Loss
   Centrality          .149    1.122   p > .05
   Humanist           -.043    -.294   p > .05      .11      p > .05
   Nationalist.        .209    1.569   p > .05
   Assimilationist    -.128   -1.041   p > .05

Teacher
   Centrality          .118     .920   p > .05
   Humanist            .299    2.095   p < .05      .16      p < .01
   Nationalist         .129     .129   p > .05
   Assimilationist     .091     .761   p < .01

Content
   Centrality          .130    1.053   p > .05
   Humanist            .408    2.958   p < .01      .22      p < .01
   Nationalist         .077     .620   p > .05
   Assimilationist     .189    1.647   p < .05


Table 3
Linear Regression Predicting Cultural Identity on Student Learning:
Euro-American Instructor Sample

                                                    Adj.     Model
Subscales              Beta     t       Sig.     [R.sup.2]    Sig.

Learning
   Centrality          .174    1.231   p > .05
   Humanist           -.225   -1.430   p > .05      .05      p > .05
   Nationalist        -.137    -.896   p > .05
   Assimilationist     .114     .814   p > .05

Learning Loss
   Centrality          .042     .294   p > .05
   Humanist           -.054    -.333   p > .05      .01      p > .05
   Nationalist.       -.104    -.666   p > .05
   Assimilationist     .043     .301   p > .05

Teacher
   Centrality         -.071    -.517   p > .05
   Humanist           -.034    -.219   p > .05      .09      p > .05
   Nationalist        -.070    -.465   p > .05
   Assimilationist    -.256   -1.935   p > .05

Content
   Centrality          .025     .187   p > .05
   Humanist           -.052    -.337   p > .05      .05      p > .05
   Nationalist         .343    2.307   p > .05
   Assimilationist     .125    -.930   p > .05

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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Mary L. Rucker, Department of Communication, College of Liberal Arts, 425 Millett Hall, 3640 Colonel Glenn Hwy., Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435-0166, email: [e-mail].

Mary L. Rucker, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Communication, College of Liberal Arts, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. Dominique M. Gendrin, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Communications, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans.