The function and meaning of combs in the Newar culture (Nepal) (1).

The head is the first part of the human body we focus on to evaluate the character of persons before we interact with them. People consciously try to improve their appearances by combing their hair and decorating the head in beautiful styles, often revealing the strong cultural traditions of the society. In the Newar (2) society, hair style and head ornaments have significant ritual and social values on which has been no work published yet. Head ornaments show stages in rites of passage, socio-economic status, civil status, and religious affiliation (Manandhar 1992 : 111 and photo appendix). In this article I will examine Newar hair dressing and in particular the types of the combs used for different functions, people who make them and what materials they are made up of.

According to tradition and social manner, uncombed and dispersed hair is an inauspicious sign which expresses depression and worry. Most Newars believe that meeting a person with dishevelled hair at first in the morning is inauspicious and will disturb their whole day. Therefore, the Newars comb their hair before starting the day.

Traditionally for daily hair care the Newars used the comb made of bamboo called kakica (3). Combs of different types are used for different functions and there is a kind of traditional brush called thakuca (4) made up of lot of needle shaped bamboo sticks. Newar women use this brush after their bath to arrange their hair before massaging it with mustard oil.

Then, they use a comb, kakica for the style of their hair as they like. These combs are made of bamboo tied by cotton cord, style of their fabrications will be different according to their function.

The Newars produce the bamboo comb with a 12 cm. long handle which makes it easier to comb hair.

The normal combs are made with simple teeth on both sides. There are special types of comb with tighter teeth to pick out lice and nits.

A skillful artist can make a comb for two functions; the right side is made with normal shaped teeth attached by one thread and the double banded left side threaded twice to make the teeth tighter and more efficient to pick out lice and nits.

The making of bamboo comb is a time consuming handicraft. Once the comb makers used to be an important part of culture. The bamboo comb makers in the urban area of the Kathmandu valley are rare to be found these days. Nowadays there is little demand of the bamboo comb among the urban people, who use plastic combs, which are cheaper and easily available. They use different chemical products to remove lice and nits, instead. Therefore, bamboo comb makers are not interested to continue their traditional skill in making special bamboo combs for removing lice and nits.

Comb Makers

The Newar comb makers come from different castes. The makers of the bamboo combs and brush are the Pode, who are cosidered as low caste and treated as untouchables. The silver comb makers are the gold-smiths belonging to the high caste Buddhists like the Vajracarya, the Shakya, and the Tamrakar.

Materials for Making the Traditional Comb and Brush

To make the bamboo comb, the Pode use three materials: pa (thick bamboo) is cut into several small flat sticks. Both ends of sticks are pointed. These sticks are used as the teeth of the comb. A kind of thin bamboo, nhaypa kathi, is attached with these teeth and also extended as the handle of comb. Cotton thread woven across both sides of the comb holds the handle.

To make a traditional brush, the bamboo is cut into sticks ranging from 20 to 30 cm. The top of these sticks are then turned into the shape of a pointed needle. When enough needle shaped sticks are prepared, they are attached together and are bound by a jute thread, nalukhipah or metal wire, tar.

The goldsmiths make the silver ritual comb, wahah kakica, by using about 100 grams of silver. It is made in their traditional work-shop, jyasah. The silver is liquidified by heating which is called wahahkalegu. Then, silver is given the shape of a comb. The handles are decorated with dancing peacock, butterfly, flowers or the eight auspicious symbols, astamangala. The most traditional silver combs have the following eight auspicious symbols: an umbrella (chatra) a sea shell (sankha), two fishes (yugala matshya), an endless knot (shrivatsa), a water pot (kalasha), a lotus (padma) and a wheel (cakra). Unfortunately, the larger silver combs with these motifs are disappearing and are not being preserved by the Newars. Nowadays the gold-smiths only make the miniature form of silver combs as requested by their clients.

The silver comb comes in a set that consists of a comb itself and a decorated pin (natuca or natubhatuca), which is used as a make-up tool as well as a hair decoration object. This set is made in the same processe as the silver comb with different cuttings and motifs. Nowadays, the Newars use only miniature comb sets as the symbol of their tradition.

Combs play an important role during Newar rituals particularly in following life cycle rites and rituals:

Sitting in the Cave, barha taygu: Interestingly the ceremony has only been described by male anthropologists (6) based on interviews and none of them remarked on the importance of the comb in the ritual. The barha taygu life cycle ritual for young Newar girls is held before their first menstruation, between the age of 9 to 13. An astrologer works out an auspicious moment for the entrance ceremony for a girl to go into confinement. If the girl has her first menstruation before observing the ritual, she will be closed immediately in a dark room without these rites called barha cwanegu (7). The rite held with or without entrance ceremony takes 12 days. During the first 11 days, the girl has to stay in a room without seeing sunlight and any male person. She has to practice some social rules. She must keep herself well groomed and stay cheerful. She learns to pay attention to family relations and to create harmony among the members, etc. (8)

On the fourth or the sixth day of confinement a ceremony called komcikan saykegu is observed. That day, early in the morning, the girl purifes herself using mustard oil cake (khau) and bathing. The wife of the oldest male in the family, thakalinaki, makes an effigy of cotton called barha khya which is placed in a niche, gwakhanpwa, or at the ceiling in the confined room. She is given one bowl of home made face washing powder, kom (9), another one is full of mustard oil, chikan (10), a comb, kakica and other cosmetic objects. She offers all these things with a feast, bhoy (11) to the effigy then to the girl. From that moment the girl uses face make-up, has to pay constant respect to the effigy. She offers a small quantity of all the objects before she uses traditional cosmetics and the food she eats.

According to Allen (1982), during the ritual, barha, the girl symbolically flatters the effigy, barha khya. As I am a Newar woman I had undertaken the rite and have had a lot of chances to carefully observe the ritual in other occasions. The elderly women would tease the confined girl that if barha khya did not come to sleep with you, he did not love you (12).

R. Pradhan (1986) wrote that the barha khya is a feminine effigy. I observed it to be a male figure or a couple in a pose with sexual overtone. Therefore, I think that either the ritual itself means the symbolic romance between the girl and barha khya or that during these days the girl is receiving lessons in sexual conduct as Allen analysed.

I conclude that during this period of the ritual the girl is prepared for conjugal life. By the way of teasing, she has a lesson of doing make-up to please barha khya by respecting and making herself attractive and cultivating cheerfulness. She is preparing for the life with her future husband. During these days the neighbours and friends come to play with the girl. One of their games is acting out dramas. By the means of these plays the girl is made aware of potential family problems and how to handle in-laws. All these experiences prepare her to be a good wife with barha khya as her symbolic husband.

The religious book, swasthani brata katha, describes that the goddess Parvati created a boy Ganesa, out of the dust of face washing powder, komkhi. That means, she gives birth with the komkhi. During the ritual barha, the girl utilises kom to wash herself. It signifies that she is ready to give birth and she is considered fertile.

The twelfth day of the confinement is celebrated with a great feast. Early in the morning, the girl takes a bath, the barber, nauni or butcher nai (13), woman cuts the toenails and paints her feet with crimson colour, alah (14). After she purifies herself with mustard oil-cake, she makes herself up using washing powder, kom.

The eldest man's wife, thakalinaki, combs the girl's hair by applying mustard oil. In Kathmandu, one hair knot in the middle of the girl's head is made. This knot is called pwakay sapwa, that is decorated with a red ribbon and an ornament called, sapwa tisa.

In Bhaktapur, Levy (1992: 672) observed that the naki (thakalinaki, combs the girl's hair and makes one plait instead of a knot. Most of the Newars comb either in the style of one knot or in one plait as a symbol of a married woman. Therefore, the thakalinakin combing the girl's hair in this style has great significance. With this grooming with the ritual comb, the girl is considered a complete adult who can have sexual relations and produce offspring. Thus, the family prepares the girl for marriage.

Nowadays, most of the girls cut their hair very short which makes it difficult to comb in these traditional styles. Even today the tradition of combing the girl's hair by the wife of senior man of the family continues symbolically with the comb and mustard oil.

Once the girl is groomed, dressed and well ornamented, she worships the god. (15). At the end of the worship, she receives vermilion, (sinca) on the centre front of her head by the wife of the senior in the family. If the girl has already married (16) she receives it from her own husband.

The ceremony ends that same evening but the girl's groomed hair on that occasion is preserved for four more days.

As observed, the function of the comb has an important place in the ritual life cycle. The comb along with other materials for make-up is offered to the girl. In the case of a married girl (17) these items are brought from her husband's family. I suppose that indicates the girl's status in the family and her link with the family.

After observation of the rite, I conclude that the above mentioned objects are directly linked with family relationship. The barha is a ritual of the girl's admission into her family as a complete adult. With the combing of her hair by the wife of senior in the family and using all objects, she enters the family as a rightful adult member or if married, her hair is ritually combed and groomed by the paternal senior most by applying the comb sent from her husband's family. By the means of the comb, she not only enters both families but ties relations between the two families. Thus, the comb becomes an important object in family relationship.

Marriage and Combs

Traditionally, the parents arrange the marriage of their children. From the initial search for an appropriate candidate till the end of the marriage ceremony many ritual exchanges take place. All these exchanges and negotiations are held only on Thursday, which is considered an auspicious day for conjugal relations (18). After a long negotiation between two families, they fix the dates of the ritual ceremonies. During these marriage ceremonial exchanges, the comb will be given to the bride as a ritual girl on four different occasions.

(a) Among the Manandhar and the Maharjan (Jyapu), the first girl of a comb is presented by the future groom to his future bride. With the help of a matchmaker, (lami), both families negotiate for the marriage between their son and daughter and fix the date of the ritual ceremonies. The groom's side sends the first gift to the bride along with the indication of the auspicious time given by the astrologer for marriage. This gift is called lakhabiyegu (19). Among the Vajracarya, Shakya, Tuladhar, Shrestha, Tamrakar, Chitrakar, etc., send ten betel-nuts, 20 a betel-nut box made of silver called lampica, and a one rupee coin as the first gift to the future bride (Vajracarya, 1980:21). This girl is called gwayabiygu (21) which is ritual confirmation of the engagement among the future bridegroom. The Vajracarya, Shakya, Tuladhar and the few castes of the Shrestha send second gift called sisaphusa nakah wanegu (Vajracarya 1980:22) (22) . Thus, the ritual process lakhabiyegu may happen as the first gift sending process and in some cases it occurs as the second or the third process only. Therefore, this ritual process of gift sending depends on various castes and their tradition.

Anyway, the gift lakhabiyegu should comprise of twelve lakhamari sweets, a comb, one box of vermilion and a hair plait decoration sacika, and a piece of cloth for a blouse. Depending on the economic condition of the family the following are also included; a jewellery set, clothes set, a make-up set, fresh and dried fruits, and a verities of sweets. Among the Manandhar this gift is accompanied by ten betel nuts and a document given by the astrologer indicating the auspicious moment of the wedding.

With the worship to the god, Ganes, the future bride accepts all these gifts and uses the comb, vermilion and sacika. As soon as she uses these things she is considered a partial member of the groom family.

(b) The girl's parents give her all the necessary objects for a conjugal life as gift. This is called kosah and is composed of clothes, a kitchen set, worshipping utensils, a bedroom set, a make-up set including a comb and a hair brush to arrange her hair early in the morning each day.

(c) The next day or the fourth day after the main marriage ceremony, honkegu, there is a ritual, sanpyakegu, held at the groom's house. All the necessary objects for this performance are sent by the bride's natal home, as her ritual gift. This gift contains a set to worship Ganes as well as the newly married couple. This worship is accompanied by ritual snacks called, sagan (23), and a set of traditional make-up objects:

The newly married bride preserves all above mentioned objects as her genuine gift from her natal home. Once using these things during the sanpyakegu ritual, they become her personal property. Most Newar women keep these objects for the future ritual ceremonies of their children.

Utilisation of the combs during the ritual sanpyakegu: Early in the morning, the newly married bride purifies herself with a bath. She then takes her seat in front of the sacred fire place, homa, where the fire will witness her husband combing her hair. He then continues to decorate his newly married wife with the above mentioned objects. In this article I concentrate only on comb, brush and head grooming functions.

At first, he applies mustard oil on the bride's head. Symbolically, he combs her hair with the silver comb, (wahah kakica). In fact, he uses the bamboo brush and comb to arrange the hair. He divides her hair into five parts by the help of a decorated pin called natubhatuca or natuca (24). He makes five knots, nyagah sapwah. These five knots are placed as follows: the principle one on the top middle of the head, one just above the top front of the head, another at the back side just above the neck and the other two are above the left and right ears (Vajracarya, (N. S. 1103) 1983: 60). They are considered by the Newars as five Buddha, (pancabuddha) (25) as well as five essentials elements of the life, (pancatatwa) (26).

At the end of the hair grooming with the silver comb, (wahahkakica), and the pin, (natuca) is pinned into the knots as head ornaments. Once fixed in place they are bound and circled by yellow thread, kumbahka as shown in Photo 10 (b).

According to the Newars of Banepa and Bhaktapur, there is no strict rule to make five knots during this ritual, it may be only one at the top of the head. The important part of the rite is to comb the hair with a silver comb, oil and give the vermilion to the bride in front of the fire. The silver comb set is an important object; even a poor family offers a miniature form of it (27). The other above mentioned objects may be made in less precious metals according to the family's economic capacity.

Both combing and oiling the hair is laksha, an auspicious act. The placing of vermilion is the sign of happiness, (saubhagya), which is considered auspicious for beginning of conjugal life. At the end of the grooming, he holds the traditional mirror, (jwalanhaykan) for her to see herself. Now they are socially allowed to share the conjugal bed. With this ritual the bride and groom promise to have children and to continue the family. Most of the Newars believe that the ritual authorises the newly married man to have control over his wife's sexuality. The Newars do the sanpyakegu ritual before they share the conjugal bed as the newly married couple in the process of reproducing offspring. Among the Indian (Hindu), one kind of ritual called simanta is done to purify the uterus and to protect the foetus during the first pregnancy of a woman(Pandey 1969: 64-69). Though the celebration period of the ritual sanpyakegu among the Newars and simanta in India are different, all processes, as well as the goals are similar.

The silver comb has a great significance. According to traditional belief, silver is a metal associated with the moon. Silver has the power to pacify bad influence or danger from the planets. On the other hand silver is considered to be the symbol of moon and is linked with birth (Vajracarya 1983:6). The Newars believe that silver metal has power of moon's constant rebirth. The menstrual period of a woman functions similarly as that of the rebirth cycle of the moon. The ritual sanpyakegu concerns the newly married couple's duty to generate the offspring of the family. Therefore, the utilisation of silver comb both purifies and protects the uterus and the foetus.

(d) Four days after the main ceremony of the marriage, kwahswawanegu (28) will be held. The bride's natal family members as well as their close relatives, friends and neighbours visit her at her husband's home. Each visitor offers a gift to her. The natal family gifts a make-up set along with a comb, a set of clothes and other things like: jewellery, gold coin, money, sweets and fruits.

Comb and Brush during Funeral Rites

When a person dies, all of his immediate family members as well as relatives observe mourning. Among the family members, the mourning period will last for one year and among the relatives it will last from four to forty-five days. During the mourning period, many kinds of taboos are observed by the family of the deceased's family. One of their first observances is to leave their hair uncombed and not use any head ornaments, hats or make-up. The chief mourners (sons and wife) and immediate family members take off their head ornaments or decoration. Men take off their caps and the women unfasten their node or plait.

None of the family members comb the hair until their first phase of purification is held. The purification date is different from person to person according to the relationship with the deceased. The married daughters of the dead person purify on the fourth day of death. They can then comb the hair without applying oil. The other family members have to wait until the tenth day to comb their hair (29). The daughter of the deceased apply oil only after forty-five day, in the latya ceremony. Other married daughters of the family can apply oil on the twelfth day after home purification rite, gahsu. During gahsu, close relatives can comb their hair and apply oil with the exception of deceased's wife and sons. A comb, brush and oil are all used in performing the ritual of purification.

The Purification Ritual, dubyenkegu and the Hair Brush: Certain: Buddhists perform purification on the seventh day of the death and almost all other Newars on the tenth day. They wash all their utensils and purify the whole house on that day (30). All the family members go to the river side near the cremation ground where the dead body was burned. They perform ritual purification and free themselves from the pollution.

The family priest, the barber and his wife will be present at the river side. The wife of the family barber cuts the toe nails of all the adult family members, lusithiykegu. (31) The barber shaves the head, eyebrows, moustache and beard of the chief mourner, mitaimha (son of the dead person), the other sons, and as well all adult men's head of the cognate family of the dead person. This ritual is called sankhayegu (Toffin, 1971). After the above two actions they all take several purification baths by applying different objects:

At the river side, each of them use a kind of liquid, ati (32) on their head and wash it with a pot of water mixed with ash and filtered called khalah (33)

They brush their hair by the traditional brush, thakuca, wash their face with home-made face-washing powder, kom, apply mustard oil cake, khau, and a pot of river water to purify themselves, rub their head by a kind of fruit, ambah, (emblica officinalis) and a hallah (myrobolan) and then plunge into the river.

The last bath will be taken by using a white jasmine, daphaswan. It makes them more or less free from the death pollution, they then offer water to the Sun God.

The family priest sprinkles a substance over the family members a kind of holy mixture, ritually composed of five elements: a product of cow urine, dough, milk, ghee and yoghurt called pancagabe (Dubois, 1990: 152-153). The priest then shows them a ritual mirror made of bronze or silver, called jwalanhaykan, and gives the white dresses to the chief mourners (sons and wife), which they wear during one year mourning period.

The priest then gives some rice to all of them to worship the river and the sun.

After completing all these process, the close relatives will be purified from the pollution of death. They are now considered to be free from sadness and depression, dubenkegu.

The Second Step of Purification and Combing the Hair: On the twelfth day of the death (34), the home purification ceremony is performed by performing a fire sacrifice, homa, at the place where the dead person took his last breath. This ritual is called, ghahsu, and all the family members and couples of phuki (cognate family members), who play a vital role during the cremation must participate. The ghahsu ritual, releases one from restrictions following the death.

At the end of the ritual, the priest gives a frontal mark, sinah. He puts a little oil on the head of each male person and symbolically combs their hair. Then he gives a colourful or a black cap to all males except the sons of the deceased. The female members with exception of the wife of the deceased receive oil on their head from the priest's wife, and she symbolically combs their hair. At last, with the exception of the wife and sons of the deceased all of them receive a piece of betel nut and a betel leaf to eat. They are now considered to be free from restrictions on their joy and happiness. They can now resume combing their hair, grooming themselves in their ritual ceremonies.

The sons receive only a white cap and the wife of the deceased does not receive any thing. It symbolises the continuation of mourning.

If the person who dies is the oldest among the family, thakali, these restrictions will continue for forty-five days, when another ritual called latya is held. All the above mentioned objects will be then given to the family members at this ritual instead of the ghahsu.

Sayyadana, (Donation of Bed: During the ghahsu ritual, the deceased's family give offerings called sayyadana to their priest. Sayyadana is comprised of all the objects which is necessary during the lifetime of a person, (a furnished room: kothajwalan (35), a piece of land with some agricultural tools: bunjwalan, a kitchen set: bhutujwalan, some items of food and drink: nasa-twansajwalan, worship utensils: pujajwalan, clothes for the priest couple: wasahjwalan, a jewellery set: tisajwalan, a make-up set: samajwalan or saubhagyajwalan). Saubhagyajwalan is accompanied by a comb and a brush.

Among all these things, a piece of gold with motif of a couple symbolising Visnu and his wife is given as a ritual gift. This sketch is a wish for the deceased to have the protection of the god Visnu or to have a conjugal life in heaven. This offering shows that the Newar wish the deceased a harmonious conjugal life in other world. To fulfil the wish, a comb is given with all the other essential objects. This means the comb accompanies a Newar man not only in his life time but also after his death.

Most of the Hindu Newars perform fire sacrifice called saptaha, once the year long mourning period is over. This worship lasts for seven days. At the end of the fire sacrifice the family will give an offering of a household or a bed-room, sayyadana, to the priest. They offer the divinity a miniature make-up set called saubhagyajwalan as we can see in Photo 11. The Hindu Newars believe that performance helps the dead person find a place in heaven with all the necessary elements of life.

Combs in Different Ceremonies and Worships

Among the Newars, worship of the living goddess, Kumari, is very popular. Kumari is considered as a protector of human beings and destroyer of inhuman beings, manava rakska and danava nasaka. According to a legend, she killed his own lover who created a lot of trouble to human beings. According to traditional belief, she is the royal protector, mother goddess Tulaja Bhavani, incarnated in a virgin girl of a Shakya caste (36). The Newars worship the mother goddess shrine, pith, as Kumari. One pitha has eight, nine or ten mother goddesses among them one must be Kumari.

Worship of Kumari plays a great role in ceremonial life cycle rituals among the Newars. From child's first initiation, maca janko through the old age consecration, bura janko ceremony Kumari is worshipped.

Not only the Newar but most of the Nepalese people believe that the goddess Kumari protects and gives blessing. Therefore, the Nepalese people, both Hindus and Buddhists, worship the goddess Kumari to fulfil their wishes. They worship her particularly for positive results in their work, for protection against blood diseases and bleeding problems.

When someone performs Kumari puja, he or she must include a make-up set saubhagyajwalan, in the offrings. This set is composed of a comb, a plait decoration cord, sachika, a mirror attached with vermilion box, sinah batta, a frontal mark, sinah, some glass bracelets, cura, a piece of cloth for a blouse or a set of dress. All these objects are preferred in red colour.

Most of the Hindu Newars observe various fastings and worships like satyanarayan puja, and saptaha. The performers have to offer two sets of the make-up objects, saubhagyajwalan. One is for divinity in miniature form and the, other is the real make-up set with a comb and gifted to the priest couple at the end of the ceremony.

Conclusion

I have already explained that the comb is a symbol of joy and happiness. During several rituals the comb is offered from the seniors to the juniors or to their descendants. It expresses their relationship and wishes their juniors for their happiness and happy lives. By offering a comb, they express their wish to expand their family and continue this traditional protection of their future descendants.

Therefore, I suppose that the Newars wish for a harmonious and happy family life while living in this world and in other world after death. As they believe that all human beings have a soul; only the body dies and the soul continues its existence and takes a new life after death.

The comb, a simple object, can be purchased for a little money. It is a tool of aesthetics; its function is to comb someone's hair, groom it for beauty, happiness and a harmonious appearing personality to the outside world.

In the Newar society a cheerful personality is considered an auspicious sign, laksana. During ritual and worship the comb acts as a tool for power and purification. Before birth it gives protection to the foetus by purifying the uterus and after death it removes pollution from those in mourning. Mostly it brings happiness by removing isolations, depression and loneliness.

The Newars believe in rebirth and have a tradition of preparing the dead person for the other world. They wish the deceased a better life there. It is the great duty of the deceased's descendant (son) to give all the necessary objects including a comb as a gift sayyadana to the family priest. It is supposed that these gift sayyadna will be received by the dead person in the other world for an ideal life.

The comb plays an important role in the culture and ritual functions. It reveals the social meaning and traditional behaviour of the Newars.

List of the ritual toiletries

   Name in            Used for                        Made of
   Newari

ajah           black paste, applied around   smoke of borne medicinal
               the eyes lids                 herbs mixed with mustard
                                             oil

ajahsala       container of black paste,     silver
               ajah

chikan         make-up, moisturises the      mustard oil
               hair

chikan khola   bowl of oil                   silver or bronze

jwalanhaykan   mirror to see oneself         silver or bronze decorated
                                             with flame motif
Name in          Used for                   Made of
Newari

kakica     comb to comb hair          bamboo

kom        home made washing powder   mixed flour made of barley, rice
           to wash face and body      and mustard seeds

komkhola   container for washing      silver or bronze
           powder

sinca      head decoration            vermilion

sinah      forehead decoration        vermilion

sinahma    container for vermilion    silver or bronze
Name of the object               Explanation

ajahsala             a small silver box to keep a kind of home
                     made herbals black paste, ajah

cikan khola          oil pot made of silver or bronze with full of
                     mustard oil

dumsipa cusapa       porcupine thorn

jwalanhyakan         ritual mirror made of silver and decorated
                     around with flame motif

kakica               ordinary comb made of bamboo

kalasa               holly water pot made of silver or copper

komkhola             decorative silver bowl filled with traditional
                     face washing powder, kom
Name of the object                  Explanation

kumbahka              a kind of yellow thread prepared by virgin
                      girl.

mhaykhapa             peacock feather

natubhatuca, natuca   a needle point tool made of silver its one side
                      is extended in the form of head ornament with
                      the flowers and birds motifs.

sinhahmu              a decorative silver container of vermilion
                      with fulled with vermilion

s wan                 flowers, a pink rose and a white narcissi is
                      compulsory

thakuca               hair brush made of needle pointed bamboo
                      sticks

wahahkakica           silver comb decorated by the various images

Notes

(1.) This article is a small part of my research report on "The traditional Head-dress and Hair Style among the Newars", (in Nepali), submitted at Centre for Nepal and Asian studies/ Tribhuvan University (CNAS/TU) in 1992. (I would like to thank to C. Boch, Yubin Pujari and Anand Prashad Shresth for giving their time to read this article and for correction of grammar).

(2.) The Newars are one of the 25 ethnic groups of Nepal. They are 1,041,090 (Statistical Pocket Book, 1994: 22) which represent 5.6% of the total population of the country. Among the Newars, there is social hierarchy, based on caste system according to the distribution of the responsibilities towards the society. Most of the Newars live in Kathmandu valley. They have their own language, art, architecture and culture giving them a unique identity among the other people of Nepal. Religiously, the Newars declare themselves as Hindus or Buddhists. In my opinion they follow the syncretism between Hinduism and Buddhism in both philosophy and culture.

(3.) All the Newari vernaculars are figured in if they are other they are written in italic and bracketed in abbreviation from which language are they taken. For example (nep) for Nepali world or (hin.) for Hindi.

(4.) There are some ritual function of the brush which will explain on the ritual part of this article.

(5.) Photos used in this article are mostly photographed by author herself during her field work in 1992, if the photos are borrowed or photographed by some one else than herself their names are mentioned at the legend.

(6.) Some well known anthropologists considered as the experts on the Newars, G. S. Nepali (1965), M. Allen (1982), G. Toffin (1984), R. Pradhan (1986) and R. Levy (1992)

(7.) More or less, it is like the gupha basne <<stay in the cave>> rite among the Brahman-Chhetris of Nepal. For more details see : Bennett, 1978 : 31-46.

(8.) For detail information see : Nepali, 1965 : 112-116, Allen, 1982 : 179-210, Toffin, 1984 : 140-141, Lewis, 1984 : 176-178, Pradhan, 1986 : 125-130 and Levy, 1992 : 670-673

(9.) kom is made by a mixture, powder of fried gains of barley, rice and a little portion of mustard.

(10.) This bowl is called chika khola

(11.) The feast contents, beaten rice, two types of vegetable, a type of beans and the potato curry, but the meat and alcohol are strictly prohibited.

(12.) In the old women's words, barha khya napan dyan mawala ? wan mayaya mawala?

(13.) According to social reforms of Jayasthiti Malla (Budhathoki (ed.), 2039 B. S.) nail cutting service is given, by the barber, Nauni to Shakya, Shrestha, Vajracarya Tarya, Tuladhar, etc. and by the Butcher, Nai. to the Manandhar, Maharjan, Ranjitkar, etc.

(14.) alah is a kind of mixture of water and a kind of mineral red colour which is antiseptic.

(15.) For detail of the worship see, Levy (1992), Nepali (1965), Bennett (1987).

(16.) Very rare cases in the past when child marriage was prevalent.

(17.) Some rare cases in the past.

(18.) Thursday links with the planet Jupiter, which is the source of knowledge and wisdom as well as good luck and prosperity. According to the traditional belief every thing began on Thursday will get success easily. The influence of planet brings long lasting affection among the couple.

(19.) The first gift sent to the future bride from the groom's house in which a kind of sweet called lakhamari, a paste made by mixing wheat flour and small black beans, May, flour into a paste, cooking it in butter and then dropping it into a sugar liquid. There will be twelve in numbers and it will be accompanied by the ten betel nuts and other gifts.

(20.) According to one Vaidya family of Patan, there will be 12 betel nuts and a box of vermilion, from which the girl keeps two betel nuts and accept to put the vermilion on her head.

(21.) Literary translation: give the betel nut.

(22.) Literary translation, <<to go to feed the fruits>>, this gift composed by the seasonal fruits but the following fruits are compulsorily presented; bananas, mango, sugarcanes, pea-nuts, radish, guavas, green myrobolan, fruits of the bayar tree.

(23.) sagan, is a ritual offering to wish someone good luck who is going to begin something new in his or her life or to congratulate someone who has success or achieved something. There are two types of sagan, one is called gossagan and another is called passagan. The gosagan, non vegetarian, is comprises with yoghurt, clothes, a boiled egg, a fried fish, alcohol (among certain Newars, along with above said items meat, pan cake, etc., are also added). The passagan, vegetarian, is comprises with the yoghurt and clothes only.

(24.) This is a tool used for partition of the hair. Its one side is pointed like needle and another side like as a miniature crown decorated by various motifs likely butterflies, flowers, peacock, etc.

(25.) The names of the five Buddha, their places and their corresponding elements are respectively as follows: Bairocana-middle-the sky/ Akssvyay-above the front-the water/Ratnasmvaba-above the left earland/Amoghasiddhi-above the right ear-air and Amitambha-the back one- the fire.

(26.) Water, air, land, sky and fire, all together is called pancatatwa.

(27.) Recently one of my friend from Patan told me that the comb is not needed to be made of silver for this ritual. Her own family has a collection of small combs made of other less precious metal than silver. As I have only one information in this matter, I have to do more field work on it to go in depth and I am interested in studying it in detail.

(28.) Literal meaning of khwaswawanegu, is to go and see the face (of newly married daughter). Among the Manandhar, it will be held on the same night of the wedding. Nowadays, most of he Newars held this ritual on the convenient day of both families (bride & groom's). Even some families have abandoned this ritual.

(29.) Among the certain Newar castes, the Vajracarya, Shakya, Ranjitkar, etc. practice to purification ritual on seventh day of the death.

(30.) For more details on purification cleaning process see; Manu Smriti, trans. Doniger, 1991 : 111.

(31.) The butcher plays that role among the certain castes like Manandhar, Ranjitkar, Benjankar, etc.

(32.) ati is a kind of liquid made of wheat flour and water made by a married daughter of the dead person's family. It will be cooked in a clay pot, not inside the house but under the roof of main entrance, pikhalakhu, of the death person's house.

(33.) khalas is a kind of water mixed in ash and then filtered.

(34.) In certain castes, already mentioned above, this ritual is held on the seventh day of the death.

(35.) A house if one can afford it.

(36.) For more details see M. Allen, 1975 & 1984 / S. Manandhar, 1988.

(37.) In the photo, a small piece of cloth is presented, which is offered to Kumari shrine. If one is going to worship the living Goddess Kumari, hey offer a piece of cloth minimum 1.5 m. to make a blouse or a set of dress for Kumari.

References

Allen, Michael. 1984. The Cult of Kumari: Virgin Worship in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point

-- 1982. "Girls' pre-puberty rites amongst the Newars of Kathmandu valley". Women in India and Nepal. Canberra: Australian National University (ANU), pp. 179-210

Bennett, Lynne. 1978. "Sitting in Cave: An Analysis of Ritual Seclusion at Menarche among Brahmans and Chhetris in Nepal." Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 6:1, pp. 31-46.

Budhathoki, Chandra Bikram. 2039 B. S. (1982 A. D.) Jayasthiti Mallako Sudhar (in Nepali). Patan: Shanjha Prakashan (trans. The Reforms of Jayasthiti Malla)

Doniger, Wendy and B. K. Smith (trans.). 1991. The Laws of Manu. New Delhi: Penguin classics

Dubois, Abb J. A. 1990. Hindu Manners, Customs & Ceremonies. New Delhi: Asian Educational services

Levy, Robert I. and Kedar Raj Rajopadhyaya. 1990. Mesocosm: Hinduism & the Organisation of the Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California press 

Lewis, Todd T. 1984. The Tuladhars of Kathmandu: A Study of Buddhist Tradition in a Newar Merchant Community. Michigan: U. M. I. Dissertation information service

Manandhar, Sushila. 2049 B. S.( 1992 A. D.). Newar Janasamudayma Pracalita Parmparagata sira srigara saili ra Tyasako Sanskritika Mahatwa, (Nepali) (forthcoming book based on research report, submitted at CNAS/TU: Kathmandu: in 2049 B. S.) (trans. The Traditional Style of Head Dress and the Ornamentation and Their Importance among the Newars)

--, 1988, "The Royal Devotion to Deity Taleju". Ancient Nepal. No. 107. Kathmandu: Department of Archaeology

Nepali, G. S.. 1965. The Newars: An Ethno-sociological Study of a Himalayan Community. Kathmandu : Himalayan Bookseller, (First edition 1988)

Pandey, Rajbali. 1969. Hindu Samsakara (Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments). Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas

Pradhan, Rajendra. 1986. Domestic & Cosmetic Rituals Among the Hindu Newars of Kathmandu, Nepal. (Ph.D. Thesis, submitted to the University of Delhi for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in 1986)

Statistical Pocket Book of Nepal-1991. 1994. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics

Toffin, Gerard. 1984. Societe et Religion Chez les Newar du Nepal. Paris: CNRS 

--. 1979. "Les Rites Funeraires des Hautes Castes Hinduistes Newar (Nepal)". Les Hommes et la Mort: Rituels Funeraires ^ Travers le Monde. Paris: Le Sycomere

Vajracarya, Badriratna & Ratnakaji Vajracarya. 1083 N. S. (1963). Nepal Janajivan krya, paddti, (Newari). Kathmandu : Lekhaka dvoya (trans. the life cycle ritual of Nepal)

Vajracarya, Chunda. 1103 N. S.(1983). "Buddhamargiya Newatay Ihipa Prathay Sanpyakegu Riti, in Kulan. (Newari) Patan: Patan Sanyukta Campus, pp. 55-62 (trans. The sanpyakegu ritual during the marriage among the Buddhists Newars)

Vajracarya, Ratna Kaji. 1100 N. S. (1980). Yendyaya Bauddha Puja Kriyaya Halan Jwalan. (Materials Required for the Rituals of the Buddhist of Kathmandu) Kathmandu : Nepal Bauddha PrakaShan.

-- 1109 N. S. (1989). Newa Sanskar Sanskritiya Taica (Cultural Heritage of the Newars). Kathmandu: Vajracarya Prakashan.