The evolution of career guidance and counseling in the People's Republic of China.

Although China has a long history of vocational guidance, it is functionally at a beginning stage in career development and counseling because of the historical vagaries of its political leadership. Vocational guidance and career counseling services, as a professional field, are now rapidly being developed to meet the growing need of Chinese society. M. Pope's (1995, 2000) social transitions stage model is applied to the development of career counseling in China. In particular, this article addresses historic and current trends in the economy and labor market in China and their profound impact on the development of career counseling.

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In an emerging global era, high technology and new information systems promote a new economy, bringing a revolution in education, the labor market, and lifestyles throughout Asian and Pacific Rim countries. The People's Republic of China (China) is no exception. China is now going through a total transformation, with remarkable achievement not only in its economic development but in all aspects of society. The new market economy has created a new critical condition for career development of the masses as well as openings for career professionals. As a response, vocational guidance and career counseling services as professional fields are being rapidly developed in China.

Although communication technology has transformed separate countries into a global village, it is important to look at the changes taking place in the People's Republic China as well as the impact of the social conditions in China on career development in the country.

Pope (1995, 2000) advanced a social transitions stage model to describe the development of career counseling in the United States, with stages identified from the third author's historical research. In an extension of this social transitions stage model, W. Zhang and Pope (1997) applied this model to the development of career counseling in China and Hong Kong. The current article expands on that analysis and discusses the present system more in depth. The purpose of this article is to increase the understanding of career development in China by highlighting the current trends in the economy and labor market in China, their profound impact on the development of career counseling, and their potentially significant professional implications.

Cultural Context for the Development of Career Counseling

Although vthe founders of China's vocational education system were visionary in their views of individual career choice and the role of vocational guidance in that process, the road to the development of career counseling has been rocky and has been strewn with political landmines (France, 1990; Hu, Chen, & Lew, 1994; W. Zhang, 1994; W. Zhang & Pope, 1997). It has evolved from a vocational education model, to a political/ideological education model, to a guidance teacher model, to its wholesale demise, to its rebirth during the last decade.

Within the last decade, China embarked on a new program to reform its economy. In 1992, the 14th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) stated that the goal of China's economic reform was the construction of a socialist market economic system, and since then, steps have been taken to promote the transition from a planned economic system to a market economic system (Hu et al., 1994).

The market-oriented economy brought a dramatic revolution to the Chinese employment system, which affects nearly the entire population in all urban areas of China. The first revolution to appear among education institutions was a change in student placement systems. Under the ideal Marxist system, there would be a job for all citizens, and, for nearly a half century, the Chinese government, through a national economic planning policy, undertook the responsibility of finding a job for all graduates, including college students and high school students.

During this time, career was defined by the state and was introduced to younger generations as an individual's total contribution to communism and social improvement. People heavily depended on the government to find jobs for them; however, rarely was there any individual choice regarding which job was given to the individual. Schools convinced students to obey placement arrangements by teaching them that in order to build a socialist society, they needed to be placed in occupations that were needed, not necessarily occupations in which they had any great interest. With the economic changes of the 1990s and the market-oriented reforms, schools and universities no longer took total responsibility to present every student with a job. Students now were forced to find their own jobs.

The second revolution in the Chinese employment system was the transition from state-guaranteed job security to market-oriented job employment (State Council of China, 1986). Under the prior communist planned economy, all major entities were a government-owned business, and a job was guaranteed to all. The job-placement system was called "Unified Labor Allocation," which was colloquially referred to as an "arranged marriage." Unified Labor Allocation was operated by the Labor Bureau, which allocated jobs to everyone. They granted all employees in the state sector (and even in the collective sector) lifelong employment with promotion by seniority. This was known as the "Iron Rice Bowl" system (W. Zhang & Pope, 1997). It meant that people who were recruited by the state sector were guaranteed lifelong jobs and all benefits, such as pension, free medical service, cheap housing, and so on. Even workers' children could take on their parents' jobs after their parents had retired. These jobs could never be lost, ju st as an iron rice bowl could never be broken (Hu et al., 1994).

The budding market economy of the 1990s spontaneously forced the government to accept a new competitive and contractual employment system, which created massive layoffs when such businesses were not profitable. For many Chinese, especially those over 30 years old, this was the first time they had to think about what they were going to do with their lives and their careers; there was no longer any automatic security. With freedom and choice, however, came chaos and insecurity.

The market-oriented economy not only brought a dramatic change to the employment system but also to the traditional family-oriented, communist helping system. As Hu (1997) and Pope (1999a) pointed out, in China, an old country with thousands of years of tradition and culture, the family unit had served as a basic resource for all types of advice. Under the previous socialist system (1949-1991), all persons in positions of leadership, whether they were public officials, party leaders, employee supervisors, or school teachers, offered advice and counsel to workers and students for dealing with problems, both job related and social or family related. Individuals were even required to obtain approval from their employer before a marriage license could be secured. People who were accustomed to obeying authority and allowing authority to manage their lives now required new resources for guidance for their future and strategies to cope with the new order. Counseling, particularly career guidance and career counseli ng, is becoming the great interest of psychologists, educators, and administrators.

The social impact of technology was also an important factor in the reemergence of career guidance and counseling. Haakenson (1994) pointed out that today's young people are exposed to images from around the world through media and the entertainment industry as never before. Global linkages are increasingly visible to the general public through environmental issues, telecommunications networks, and international trade. The Internet provides a window for Chinese to learn different perspectives on life and cultural values, which produce a critical need for a career guidance program for the young generation to understand themselves and the world around them.

School reform in China opened the door to the development of career guidance and counseling. The significant social change in China forced the education system to engage in efforts to provide better services and well-rounded education to produce a diverse and highly educated labor force. A major concern for educators in China is how to promote well-rounded education and not just to prepare students for taking tests and getting into college. Various school counseling models, programs, and materials have emerged in cities such as Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Xian, and Guangdong. Some schools in these cities have begun to experiment with developing and using career assessment inventories and providing career counseling services to their students.

Development of Vocational Guidance and Career Counseling

The creation and development of career guidance and career counseling as a professional field in China can be divided into seven distinct stages: the beginning of vocational guidance (1917-1949); the reorientation of vocational education and vocational guidance (1950-1965); the abandonment of vocational guidance (1966-1976); a transitional period in career guidance and counseling (1977-1986); the experimental period of career guidance and counseling (1987-1989); the expansionist period of career guidance and counseling (1990-1996); and, finally, the international collaboration period of career guidance and counseling (1997-present). This article describes the changing process of career guidance and counseling and its current development in China.

Stage 1: The Beginning of Vocational Guidance (1917-1949)

In 1914 and 1915, Yanpei Huang investigated and visited schools in China and the United States (Y. Huang, 1982). Huang attacked existing education, which he regarded as useless and irrelevant. He advocated a more pragmatic approach to education that would prepare students for life and transform people from "consumers" to "producers." The only way to solve this problem was to combine education with vocation (Chinese Vocational Education Association [CVEA], 1918b). Huang believed that U.S.-style vocational education and vocational guidance could be an effective way to reform the Chinese education system and prevent crises, based on his visiting American schools (Y. Huang, 1917).

On May 6, 1917, the CVEA was founded in Shanghai by Yanpei Huang, Yuanpei Cai, and others. The pioneers of the CVEA were well known in China. Yanpei Huang was a minister of education in Jiangsu province until 1914, and Yuanpei Cai was a minister in the Education Department in China. Such pioneers encouraged many government leaders and rich businessmen, even warlords, to join the CVEA. According to the statistics, there were 786 members in 1917; 1,429 in 1918; and 9,884 in 1931 (Jiang, 1933).

The manifesto of this association called for an education system that would directly solve the "problem of livelihood." The aim of the CVEA was to help unemployed people get jobs and to make employees happier at work (CVEA, 1917a). This aim was to be achieved through vocational guidance and vocational education. Vocational guidance was to help people find suitable jobs, whereas vocational education was to train people to be competent for jobs. According to Yanpei Huang, if everybody could get work and enjoy their work, unhappiness and misery would disappear from the world (CVEA, 1917a, 1985).

From 1917 to 1948, the CVEA set up five vocational schools, 12 vocational education centers, and 12 vocational guidance and counseling centers. The schools used the method of "half-day study and half-day workshop." Students studied in classrooms in the morning and worked in factories in the afternoon (CVEA, 1918a). The CVEA also established Vocational Guidance Committees and some job centers, helping those who left school to find jobs in larger cities such as Shanghai, Nanjing, Chongqing, and Fuzhou. The CVEA published more than 200 books and 30 survey reports on vocational education and guidance and counseling. Several books and reports described the vocational guidance systems in other countries.

The models of vocational guidance and counseling followed by the CVEA were strongly influenced by those of the United States. As Y. Huang said in 1917, "Vocational education and vocational guidance were not created by the CVEA. They originated in European countries and were developed in the United States, and then exerted an influence on eastern countries" (p. 13).

There were three main ways in which U.S. vocational education and guidance were transmitted to China. First, Y. Yanpei visited the United States to learn about American vocational education and guidance. Second, some activists in the CVEA, such as Liu Chanen, Wang Zhixing, and Zhong Daozhan, studied vocational education and guidance in the United States and later worked for the CVEA. Third, the U.S. education philosopher, John Dewey, went to China to develop his theory of democratic society, vocational education, and vocational guidance in 1919 (Solties, 1994). Dewey advocated that education should help people find occupations that matched their interests and abilities.

Stage 2: The Reorientation of Vocational Education and Vocational Guidance (1950-1965)

During the 8 years after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese education system emulated that of the Soviet Union (USSR). China lacked experience in socialist construction and had only the Soviet Communist Party for reference. Consequently, it was asserted in the guiding ideology for Chinese education that the Soviet education system should be used as an example. In China, ordinary secondary schools education was replaced by "polytechnic education," and vocational guidance was replaced by political and ideological education. Nadezhda Krupskaya proposed polytechnic education in the Soviet Union. It was intended to make students in ordinary schools familiar with the most important branches of production in industry and agriculture, to impart skills in the handling of tools and materials, and, generally, to acquaint students with both theoretical knowledge and firsthand practical experience of the basic processes of production (Kairov, 1956).

Guidance teachers were used in the liberated areas occupied by the Chinese Communist Party in the 1930s. In the 1950s, Chinese schools gained the experience of guidance teachers from the Soviet Union (Fan, 1991). The influential textbook, Pedagogy, edited by I. A. Kairov in 1956, was used to train teachers in China. This book had two long chapters on "The Student Collective in the School" and "The Guidance Teacher" (Kairov, 1956).

Stage 3: The Abandonment of Vocational Guidance (1966-1976)

During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, all urban individuals who left school went without choice to the countryside to work in agriculture. Vocational guidance was not thought to be necessary. According to Mao Zedong's theory, as interpreted by the so-called "Gang of Four," in the 17 years after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the leadership of the education departments had been seized by a handful of traitors, special agents, and "capitalist roaders." The "Gang of Four" consisted of Jiang Qing (Mao Zedong's wife) and three senior associates: Chungqiao Zhang, the propaganda chief; Wenyuan Yao, the cultural administrator; and Hongwen Wang, the youthful vice-chair of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Under the influence of the Gang of Four, Mao concluded that teachers and students had to be educated by poor and lower-middle-class peasants, not by schools, because the majority of them had been trained by older intellectuals in schools, colleges, and universities. On ly in poor rural areas and through hard physical labor could youth change their old ideology and world outlook.

Just prior to the Cultural Revolution in 1966, Huang Yanpei passed away. During the Cultural Revolution, the CVEA was forced to close and all files were labeled "enemy files." Most of its researchers were sent to farms to do manual work, to receive political reeducation, and to renew their world outlook. Y. Huang's wife, Weijun Yao, was tortured to death because her husband had set up the CVEA (J. Huang, 1987). It was impossible for anyone to propose or introduce any other models or methods of career guidance and counseling during the Cultural Revolution. Vocational guidance was dead in China, or at least, an underground phenomenon.

Stage 4: A Transitional Period in Career Guidance and Counseling (1977-1986)

The overthrow of the Gang of Four in 1976 marked the end of the Cultural Revolution. In educational matters, entrance examinations were restored and universities recruited students in 1977. Mandatory rural work ceased.

The demand for career guidance and counseling in urban secondary schools increased exponentially during this stage. Although students had more freedom to choose their course of studies, most of the teachers, parents, and students found it very difficult to make these crucial choices. Once students chose a course of studies, they would work in this field and would have little chance to change subjects. From 1949 to 1986, there had been no proper career guidance and counseling in secondary schools in China. Most Chinese did not even know the terms career guidance and counseling. Teachers, therefore, could not give students proper help when students gained the freedom to choose their subjects. The teachers gave students some suggestions for career, but this assistance was based only on minimal personal experience and limited information.

Stage 5: The Experimental Period of Career Guidance and Counseling (1987-1989)

W. Zhang (1984) introduced the concept of career counseling and addressed the importance of the development of career programs for high schools in China. In 1985, the Chinese Vocational Education Association began a column featuring career guidance and counseling in its journal, Education and Vocation (CVEA, 1985). The journal then published a series of articles on career guidance and counseling models in Western countries. In 1987, workshops and seminars were organized by university professors and Chinese scholars returning from abroad to introduce career counseling and guidance at Beijing Normal University, Central China Normal University, and Shanghai Normal University.

In 1987, the first National Conference on Career Guidance and Counseling was held in Shanghai, sponsored by the State Education Commission of China. At the conference, several schools participated in a research project to introduce a career guidance model to high schools under the leadership of the Institute of Educational Sciences at the East China Normal University. The purposes of the career guidance model were to help students to learn about the world of work, to get to know themselves, and to develop self-expression and career goals. Career guidance and counseling were conducted through career guidance and counseling activities, including interest groups, competitions, career talks, career days, career rooms, psychological tests, and career counseling (W. Zhang, 1993a, 1993b). In 1989, the State Education Commission of China promulgated a document that called on urban schools to use the career guidance model.

The aforementioned efforts in research and professional activities assisted China to study internationally known authorities such as Frank Parsons, Donald Super, John Holland, and John Krumboltz. International theories and practice of career development were no longer foreign to China.

Stage 6: The Expansionist Period of Career Guidance and Counseling (1990-1996)

The development of career guidance and counseling continued throughout major cities in China in the 1990s. Through the formation of professional organizations, publication of journals, and program adoption in schools, career guidance and counseling has been adopted in the Chinese education system as a professional field.

In October 1990, the Second National Conference on Career Guidance was held in Shanghai, sponsored by the State Education Commission of China, the Chinese Vocational Education Association, and the Shanghai Education Bureau. There were 125 representatives from 25 provinces and cities in China attending the meeting, and over 100 papers were submitted.

Between 1990 and 1991, the State Education Commission of China commissioned several experts in career development to edit a series of career guidance and counseling books (Y. Jin, 1991; Shen, 1991; Wen, 1990; S. Zhang, Jian, Zhang, & Shao, 1991). The texts systematically introduced career counseling theories and practice.

In 1992, a series of practical career guidance programs for high schools were published as a textbook in Shanghai, sponsored by Shanghai Education Bureau (1992). Since 1993, a course on career guidance and counseling has been required in all secondary schools in Shanghai, and some schools in Beijing have similarly adopted career guidance courses in their curriculum. In Guangdong, textbooks on career guidance and counseling were published by the Guangzhou Educational College and were used in some schools. In 1993, the Guangdong Province College of Education formed a research team on career guidance and counseling with support from the State Education Commission of China. In the provinces of Hubei, Jiangsu, Shanxi, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and in Tianjin city, many secondary schools have followed the career guidance and counseling courses model and have developed their own programs.

Invited by the State Committee of Education and Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, four U.S. career counseling experts--John Krumboltz (Stanford University), Sunny Hansen (University of Minnesota), Xiaolu Hu (San Jose State University), and a high school counselor, Betty Krumboltz (Palo Alto, CA)--visited China in the summer of 1993 to attend and present at a conference sponsored by the State Labor Department and Beijing Normal University. At the conference, they spent nearly 2 weeks addressing career theories and practices in the United States (Hu, Krumboltz, & Hansen, 1997).

On September 29, 1993, the Chinese Careers Guidance Association (CCGA), an affiliate of the National Vocational and Technical Education Association with support from the State Education Commission , was established in Beijing. This was the first national and professional career guidance and counseling association in China. The mission of the association (CCGA, 1994) was to help people choose careers, to assist employees to achieve satisfaction and fully use their abilities at the workplace, to help employers recruit qualified workers, and to promote everyone to become a contributor to Chinese society. The objectives of the CCGA included enhancement of research in the area of career guidance, promotion of career guidance practice, training for career guidance professionals, promote increased international exchange, and promote collaboration and communication in career counseling (CCGA, 1994).

The organization grew from 133 members when it was first established in 1994 to 317 professionals in 1998 with 83 regional organizations (CCGA, 1998a). Professor Jin Yiming was the first president. The Committee of Counselors was composed of Wen Youxin, secretary-general of the Chinese Vocational and Technical Education Association; Wan Wenzhan, director of the General Education Section of the State Education Commission of China; Zhang Xiaojian, director of the Employment Section of the China Labor Department; Shen Yunren, an academic member of the Central Institute of Educational Sciences; Lan Hongsheng, vice director of the Beijing Education Bureau; and Yu Dali, vice director of the People's Government in the Dongcheng district of Beijing. The CCGA secretariat is set up in the Career Guidance Office of the Educational Research Centre in the Dongcheng district of Beijing.

Stage 7: The International Collaboration With Career Guidance and Counseling Professionals (1997-Present)

International exchange has been a critical way for Chinese educators to learn from their overseas career colleagues and to grow together. The Sixth International Counseling Conference on Counseling in the 21st Century was held in May 1997 in Beijing. With 130 counseling professionals in attendance, participants came from seven countries and all parts of China. One of the major themes at the conference was the exchange of ideas and practices in the area of career guidance and counseling, and major papers were presented by Pope, Zhang, and Hu. The presenters introduced the current development in career counseling in their countries and shared their concerns and challenges for the future.

In addition, in 1997, the Career Guidance Office of the CCGA secretariat was moved to the Tianjin Vocational Technical Teachers' College, and the first issue of a newsletter was published by CCGA. The members of CCGA increased to 317 in 155 organizations at the beginning of 1998 (CCGA, 1998a). At the same time, information technology has started to be used in career counseling. For example, Web-based career information was set up and was available for all students in Shanghai. In September 1998, 16 research projects in career guidance and counseling were approved and received financial support by CCGA (CCGA, 1998b).

The first International Conference of Career Guidance and Counseling was held in the middle of October 1999, with invited papers from W. Zhang (1999) and Pope (1999b). It was organized by CCGA and lasted for 6 days. The purpose of the conference was to have international academic exchange and to encourage international research collaboration of career guidance and counseling. The topics of invited presentations covered aspects of career fields such as unemployment issues, career counseling for the disadvantaged, design of Web-based career information, school-to-career transition, and career guidance for rural areas. Participants came from more than 15 countries.

Conclusion

Although career counseling professionals in China have only had the last two decades of recent governmental support, they have made impressive progress in their development. They have put forth great energy in promoting experimental research and modeling to achieve the best practice. They are open and look forward to learn from existing literature and from their global colleagues. The effort to develop career counseling as a profession, however, is still facing challenges in many ways. Briefly, some of the challenges Chinese career professionals will face are (a) adjusting for the cultural differences between U.S./European and Asian value systems in career counseling, (b) developing effective career counseling techniques and theories that are appropriate to Chinese society, and (c) learning the concept of gender equity to fully use student/client potential and talents.

In conclusion, although China has a long history of vocational guidance, it is functionally at a beginning stage in career development and counseling because of the historical vagaries of its political leadership. It is exciting to see career counseling viewed as a valuable practice that can be imported from U.S. society. Chinese professionals are very interested in learning and implementing U.S. models into their educational institutions and urban communities to help their students and citizens to find satisfactory careers. It is obvious that economic growth, labor market change, and educational reform are major factors that will contribute to the emergence of career counseling as well as the improvement of guidance services. Career professionals are developing new concepts, new visions, and new models in career counseling and guidance services as a response to new social demands in China and internationally.

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Weiyuan Zhang is a research fellow at the Open University of Hong Kong in Kowloon, Hong Kong, China. Xiaolu Hu is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling at San Jose State University in San Jose, California. Mark Pope is an associate professor in the Division of Counseling and Family Therapy at the University of Missouri-Saint Louis. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Mark Pope, Division of Counseling and Family Therapy, College of Education, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, 415 Marillac Hall, 8001 Natural Bridge Road, Saint Louis, MO 63121-4499 (e-mail: [e-mail]).