The effects of perceived barriers, role models, and acculturation on the career self-efficacy and career consideration of Hispanic women.

This study used path analysis to examine the relationship between perceived barriers, acculturation, and role model influence on the career self-efficacy and career considerations of a sample of Hispanic women. Two path models were examined. The male-dominated model accounted for 15% of the variance, and the female-dominated model accounted for 26% of the variance. No relationship was found between the variables of interest and male-dominated career self-efficacy and consideration. However, perceived barriers were related to female-dominated career consideration and Anglo acculturation significantly contributed to female-dominated career self-efficacy. Results are discussed with regard to career practice and research with Hispanic women.

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In 2004, more than 50% of Hispanic women older than 16 years of age were employed outside of the home, the majority (more than 60%) in low-paying jobs (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004) that offer little opportunity for advancement (e.g., sales and service). These statistics are of particular concern when one considers that, in 2002, 20.8% of Hispanic families lived below the poverty level and that, for households headed by single women, the rate was 36.4% (Proctor & Dalaker, 2003). As the Hispanic population in the United States continues to grow, the employment trends of Hispanic women raise serious concerns about the socioeconomic health of the Hispanic family. Although greater attention has recently been focused on the career development of Hispanics (e.g., Arbona, 1990; Flores & Obasi, 2005; McWhirter, Hackett, & Bandalos, 1998), there is a need to focus on the career considerations of women in particular to understand the factors influencing their career decision making and to broaden the range of careers they are willing to consider.

Social cognitive career theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) offers a useful framework for examining the factors that influence Hispanic women's career considerations. Building on Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory and Hackett and Betz's (1981) extension of self-efficacy theory into the career domain, Lent et al. (1994) expanded the concept of self-efficacy in the context of a conceptual model in which career development is viewed as a process that incorporates a person's cognitive processes, environment, and contextual factors. Of particular interest within this framework is the construct of career self-efficacy and the influence of contextual variables (e.g., perceived barriers, acculturation, role model) on the formation of self-efficacy beliefs and career considerations. According to SCCT, contextual variables can have an indirect influence on self-efficacy and goals as background variables as well as a direct influence at the point in which decisions are made as proximal variables. By gaining a better understanding of the factors that influence Hispanic women's career-related behaviors, specifically self-efficacy and career consideration, interventions can be identified to enhance and broaden the career options that they consider. This study examined the relationship of several contextual variables on Hispanic women's career self-efficacy and career consideration.

Self-efficacy has received extensive attention and support in the literature as it relates to career development and academic and career decision making among women and students of color (Byars, 1997; Flores & O'Brien, 2002; Gainor & Lent, 1998; Schaefers, Epperson, & Nauta, 1997; Tang, Fouad, & Smith, 1999). One study indicated that, after ability, math and science self-efficacy accounted for the largest significant contribution to identifying male and female college students who continued to pursue engineering as a major (Schaefers et al., 1997). Byars provided support for the relationships between racial/ethnic identity, self-efficacy, and career consideration for a sample of African American college women. In other studies, researchers reported that math self-efficacy was predictive of interest and math-related course enrollment for a sample of African American college students (Gainor & Lent, 1998) and that career self-efficacy was predictive of the career considerations of a sample of Asian American college students (Tang et al., 1999). More recently, Flores and O'Brien found that male-dominated career self-efficacy was positively predictive of career choice prestige and negatively predictive of female-dominated careers for women in a sample of Mexican American adolescents.

In addition to self-efficacy, perceived barriers warrant attention in relation to Hispanic women's career-related behaviors. Research on barriers and diverse populations has indicated that students of color anticipated more barriers to their academic and career pursuits (Luzzo & Hutcheson, 1996; McWhirter, 1997) and that perceived barriers may affect students' academic and career pursuits (Leal-Muniz & Constantine, 2005). The consideration of career-related barriers is of particular relevance to Hispanics in light of Arbona's (1990) argument that the presence of barriers in students' lives may help explain the often-reported discrepancy between Hispanics' high career aspirations and low expectations. Possible barriers anticipated by Hispanics in pursuing their career goals may include financial constraints and ethnic discrimination and, for Hispanic women in particular, sex discrimination and conflict between family and work demands. Thus, in working with this population, considering how barriers are perceived by Hispanics is critical not only in understanding their career decision making but also to intervene effectively in order to assist them in achieving their goals. For example, researchers found that perceived ethnic and gender career barriers were related to Mexican American college students' tendency to limit their career options (Leal-Muniz & Constantine, 2005). Additionally, Swanson and her associates (Swanson, Daniels, & Tokar, 1996; Swanson & Woitke, 1997) have suggested that perceived barriers could directly influence the development of self-efficacy beliefs. For example, a Hispanic woman who has been discouraged from considering certain occupations as inappropriate for her or has learned to expect greater difficulty in pursuing a certain career may have lower self-efficacy beliefs regarding her ability in that particular area (i.e., male-dominated careers).

The influence of role models on individuals' development and behaviors is another variable that warrants consideration. Within Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, role models are seen as a source of vicarious learning through which behaviors are learned and efficacy beliefs are formed. Role models may also exert some influence on individuals by providing verbal persuasion and encouragement to engage in certain types of behavior. Research with Hispanic populations suggests that role models, and particularly the influence of mothers and other family members, are significant in the educational and career pursuits of Hispanic women (Cardoza, 1991; Flores & Obasi, 2005; Gandara, 1982).

In a recent study examining the influence of mentors in a sample of Mexican American high school students, Flores and Obasi (2005) reported that mentors or role models were instrumental in the career decision making of these adolescents. The researchers reported that 78% of students identified role models who were family members; the most common role model was their mothers. Although no direct relationship emerged between having a role model and the variables of interest (e.g., career consideration), students indicated that their role models were a source of support and encouragement in their educational and career pursuits. Other studies, however, have demonstrated the direct influence of role models on career aspirations and choices, as well as on self-efficacy beliefs (Hackett, Esposito, & O'Halloran, 1989; Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998). Hackett et al. found that teachers had a significant influence on the career salience and educational aspirations of a sample of women in their senior year of college, with female teachers exerting the most influence. Finally, Nauta et al. reported that positive role model influences were predictive of higher self-efficacy beliefs among college women in science, engineering, and math.

Of particular significance in the study of career-related is sues of diverse groups is the influence of cultural variables, such as acculturation (Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994). The process of acculturation involves changes in behaviors, values, and attitudes as individuals adapt and function in a new or different culture (Casas & Pytluk, 1995). Recent conceptualizations of acculturation have focused on the multidimensional nature of this process (Berry, 2003) whereby individuals may hold on to aspects of their culture of origin while also acquiring beliefs and attitudes of the new culture. Thus, an individual's engagement in the acculturative process and status will affect their attitudes, values, and beliefs in different ways. More specifically, it will have an influence on their perceptions; self-efficacy beliefs; the types of activities they are willing to engage in; and, in turn, the types of careers they are willing to consider.

Research on Hispanic high school students has found that level of acculturation accounts for significant variance in educational and career expectations (Flores & O'Brien, 2002; McWhirter et al., 1998; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995). Ramos and Sanchez, for example, found that students who indicated having 2-year and 4-year college aspirations were more acculturated than those who had no college aspirations. McWhirter et al. (1998) demonstrated that level of acculturation had an indirect influence on the educational plans and career expectations of Mexican American high school girls through its influence on family commitment and gender role attitudes. More recently, Flores and O'Brien found that greater acculturation to the Anglo culture contributed to the consideration of more prestigious and more female-dominated types of careers for a sample of Mexican American adolescent girls. Given the impact that acculturation can have on career-related behaviors, it warrants further consideration in attempting to understand the career considerations of Hispanics.

To date, research with Hispanic samples has primarily focused on Mexican American women (Flores & O'Brien, 2002; McWhirter et al., 1998) or ethnically mixed samples of students (Luzzo, 1993). In addition, few studies have examined the influence of acculturation, perceived barriers, and role model influence on self-efficacy and the career considerations of Hispanic women. The present study sought to examine the influence of variables that were expected to affect Hispanic women's career self-efficacy and career consideration using a diverse sample of Hispanic women. In keeping with SCCT (Lent et al., 1994), it was hypothesized that Anglo acculturation and role models would be predictive of career self-efficacy for male- and female-dominated occupations. Hispanic acculturation was included to explore its influence on career self-efficacy. We also explored the influence of perceived career barriers on career self-efficacy based on the suggestions of other researchers (Swanson et al., 1996; Swanson & Woitke, 1997). Second, it was hypothesized that career self-efficacy for male- and female-dominated careers would be predictive of Hispanic women's consideration of these careers. Finally, based on prior research, it was hypothesized that perceived barriers and influence of role models would have a direct effect on Hispanic women's career considerations.

Method

Participants

Participants consisted of Hispanic women attending an urban community college located in the eastern United States. Students were recruited through announcements made in introductory courses and student club meetings. All students who qualified for participation were given a survey packet at these gatherings. In addition, flyers were distribution on campus (e.g., Student Life Office) requesting volunteers to participate in a study to examine the career considerations of Hispanic women. Students who agreed to participate were provided with a self-addressed envelope containing the survey questionnaires to be returned to the first author. In order to increase the response rate, we gave participants the option of being entered in a lottery for a chance to win one of five $50 cash prizes. Of 438 surveys distributed, 157 (36%) were returned and 26 were excluded from analysis because of insufficient information being provided. The final sample consisted of the 131 participants of which 39 identified themselves as Dominican (29.8%), 32 as Puerto Rican (24.4%), 23 as Ecuadorian (17.6%), 13 as Colombian (9.9%), 4 as Salvadorian (3.1%), 1 as Cuban (0.8%), and 19 as other Hispanic (14.5%). (Percentages do not equal 100% because of rounding.) A total of 60.3% reported being born outside of the U.S. mainland.

The mean age of the sample was 25 years (SD = 7.09), with a range of 17 to 54 years old. The majority of the sample (67.9%, n = 89) reported being single, 19.1% (n = 25) were married, 7.6% (n = 10) indicated that they lived with a partner, and 5.3% (n = 7) reported that they were divorced. (Percentages do not equal 100% because of rounding.) The vast majority of participants (89.6%) indicated that they planned to continue their education at a 4-year institution. Of the sample, 81 participants (64.3%) had no children and 66 (50.4%) reported household incomes below $20,000.

Instruments

Demographic information. Participants were asked to provide information about their Hispanic subgroup membership, place of birth, age, marital status, socioeconomic status (SES), whether they had children, college major, and years of residence in the United States.

Career self-efficacy. Career self-efficacy was assessed using Part I of the Career and College Questionnaire (CCQ; Byars, 1997), an adaptation of the Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale (OSES; Betz & Hackett, 1981), which asks participants to indicate their level of confidence to successfully complete the education required for entrance into 28 occupations. The scale contains 12 traditionally male-dominated occupations (e.g., airline pilot, chemist), 9 traditionally female-dominated occupations (e.g., registered nurse, secretary), and 7 gender-neutral occupations (e.g., psychologist, sales manager). Responses on this scale ranged from 0 (not at all confident) to 9 (completely confident). In an effort to maintain a similar format to the OSES, which assessed both educational and job duties self-efficacy, a second part was added to the CCQ for the current study in which respondents were asked to indicate their level of confidence in performing the job duties of the 28 occupations listed in the CCQ. Thus, the index of self-efficacy for traditionally male- and female-dominated careers was obtained by averaging responses on the Education/Training Self-Efficacy and Job Duties Self-Efficacy subscales. In keeping with the procedure used by Betz and Hackett, the average of both subscales was used as the index of career self-efficacy for male- and female-dominated careers, respectively. Previous research with the CCQ reported a coefficient alpha reliability of .95 for the instrument (Byars & Hackett, as cited in Byars, 1997). In the current study, the Cronbach's coefficient alphas for male-dominated career self-efficacy for the Job Duties Self-Efficacy and Education/Training Self-Efficacy subscales were .90 and .94, respectively. For female-dominated career self-efficacy, the Cronbach's coefficient alphas for Job Duties Self-Efficacy and Education/Training Self-Efficacy were .86 and .91, respectively.

Career consideration. The Career Consideration Scale (CCS; Byars, 1997) was used to assess Hispanic women's career considerations. The CCS consists of the same 28 careers listed on the CCQ (Byars, 1997). Respondents are asked to indicate how seriously they would consider the occupations listed. Possible responses ranged from 0 (haven't considered at all) to 9 (considered very seriously). Subscale scores are determined by averaging the responses. A coefficient alpha reliability of .85 was reported by Byars and Hackett (as cited in Byars, 1997) for the entire scale. In the current study, a Cronbach's coefficient alpha of .76 for male-dominated career consideration and .65 for female-dominated career consideration was obtained for this scale.

Career barriers. The Career Barriers Inventory-Revised (CBI-R; Swanson et al., 1996) consists of 70 items and contains 13 subscales. Respondents are asked to indicate the likelihood that they will face a particular barrier and how much the barrier would interfere with the pursuit of their goals. In the current study, only the Likelihood subscale was used. Subscale scores are obtained by summing the numeric rating of each item within the subscale and dividing by the number of items in the subscale. In the current study, a total scale score was used because, after analysis, it was found that the 13 subscales were highly correlated with one another and with the total scale score. Swanson et al. reported small to moderate correlations between the CBI-R subscales and other career-related measures. Coefficient alpha reliability for the 13 subscales of the CBI-R range from .64 for the Difficulties With Networking/Socialization subscale to .86 for the Sex Discrimination subscale (Swanson et al., 1996). In the current study, a Cronbach's coefficient alpha of .98 was obtained for the entire scale.

Acculturation. Acculturation was measured using the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (BAS; Marin & Gamba, 1996). The BAS was used in the current study because it was designed to be used with more than one Hispanic subgroup and provides scores for two cultural domains: Hispanic and non-Hispanic or Anglo (12 items each). The non-Hispanic domain represents acculturation to Anglo culture, whereas the Hispanic domain represents adherence to the Hispanic culture. Participants are asked to indicate how often they engage in activities in Spanish and English and how confident they are about their Spanish and English skills. Possible responses range from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always) for the Language Use subscale and the Electronic Media subscale and from 1 (very poorly) to 4 (very well) for the Language Proficiency subscale. Scores for each domain are obtained by adding the numeric value of each response and dividing by the number of items for each domain. The total score range for each cultural domain is from 1 to 4, and a cutoff score of 2.5 in each domain is used to distinguish between low and high adherence to each cultural domain. Significant correlations between the BAS subscales and the Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (Marin, Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, & Perez-Stable, 1987) provided validity evidence for the BAS (Marin & Gamba, 1996). Marin and Gamba reported a coefficient alpha reliability of .90 for the Hispanic domain and .96 for the Anglo domain. In the current sample, coefficient alphas of .92 and .82 were obtained for the Anglo and Hispanic domains, respectively.

Role model influence. The Influence of Role Model Scale (IRMS; Basow & Howe, 1980) assesses the influence of different role models on college students' academic and career choices. The eight models were mother, father, male teacher, female teacher, male friend, female friend, other male adult, and other female adult. Hackett et al. (1989) revised the IRMS to focus on the influence of role models on respondents' career choices while in high school and in college and by adding sister(s) and brother(s) to the measure.

This study used the Hackett et al. (1989) version of the IRMS. An overall score of role model influence was obtained by summing responses for each of the 10 role model items for high school and college separately and dividing by the total number of items rated. The high school and college ratings were averaged to provide an overall rating of role model influence. In a situation where the influence of a particular role model is not applicable, respondents are asked to cross out that item. For purposes of data analysis, the role model ratings were transformed to a 1-to-7 scale, with higher scores indicating high levels of positive role model influence (Hackett et al., 1989). To support the validity of scores on this measure, Nauta et al. (1998) reported significant correlations between high levels of role model influence and career aspirations and self-efficacy. A Cronbach's alpha of .86 was reported for a sample of female college students (Nauta et al., 1998). A coefficient alpha of .85 was obtained for the current sample.

Results

Descriptive statistics including means, standard deviations, bivariate correlations, and coefficient alphas for all of the measured variables are depicted in Table 1. Significant correlations emerged between male-dominated career consideration and male-dominated career self-efficacy (r = .38, p < .01) as well as between female-dominated career consideration and female-dominated career self-efficacy (r = .47, p < .01). Additionally, significant correlations emerged between female-dominated career consideration and perceived barriers (r = .19, p < .05) and role model influence (r = .16, p < .05). A significant correlation also emerged between female-dominated career self-efficacy and Anglo acculturation (r = .23, p < .01). No significant correlations emerged between the other variables of interest in this study.

Path analysis was conducted using the EQS structural equation modeling program (Bentler, 2005) to test the adequacy of the proposed male- and female-dominated career consideration models. To determine the adequacy of fit between the data and the proposed models, we obtained several indices of fit. The first index provided is the chi-square statistic. A nonsignificant chi-square statistic indicates good model fit (Byrne, 1994). The next two indices provided are the comparative fit index and the goodness-of-fit index; both have values of between 0 and 1.0, with a value equal to or greater than .90 indicating an adequate fit of the data to the model. Also provided are the root mean square error of approximation and the standardized root mean squared residual; values of .05 or below obtained for these indices indicate an acceptable model (Loehlin, 1998). All indices obtained for the male- and female-dominated models suggest a very good fit between the data and the models (see Table 2).

Figure 1 depicts the path model for male-dominated career consideration along with the obtained path coefficients. The male-dominated career consideration path model accounted for 15% of the variance. A significant relationship between male-dominated career self-efficacy and of male-dominated career consideration emerged (p [less than or equal to] .05). No significant relationship emerged between perceived barriers, acculturation, and role model influence and male-dominated career self-efficacy. Additionally, no relationship emerged between consideration of male-dominated occupations and perceived barriers or role model influence.

Results of the female-dominated path model accounted for 26% of the variance, with female-dominated career self-efficacy predicting female-dominated career consideration (p [less than or equal to] .05). Additionally, in this model, Anglo acculturation significantly contributed to female-dominated career self-efficacy and perceived barriers were predictive of female-dominated career consideration. Figure 2 provides the path coefficients for the female-dominated path model.

Discussion

Consistent with the conceptual and empirical literature on the significant role of self-efficacy in predicting career-related behaviors (i.e., Betz & Hackett, 1981; Flores & O'Brien, 2002; Lent et al., 1994), our results indicated that career self-efficacy was predictive of both the male- and female-dominated career consideration models for this sample of Hispanic women. However, we found little relationship between the other variables of interest and self-efficacy. In addition, we found that perceived barriers were directly associated with female-dominated career consideration but had no effect on male- or female-dominated career self-efficacy nor on male-dominated career consideration. Additionally, Anglo acculturation contributed significant variance to female-dominated career self-efficacy but not to male-dominated career self-efficacy. Finally, Hispanic acculturation and role model influence were not related to career self-efficacy, and role model influence was not related to either the male- or female-dominated career consideration models. Overall, these findings suggest that some of the variables included in our study had differential effects on career self-efficacy and career consideration, depending on the type of career (male vs. female dominated).

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The results of this study provide some support for the usefulness of a social cognitive framework in attempting to understand the factors that influence Hispanic women's career considerations and self-efficacy beliefs. Moreover, the finding that career self-efficacy was predictive in both the male- and female-dominated career consideration models provides additional support for the usefulness of this construct in understanding Hispanic women's career-related behaviors. These findings suggests that, when working with Hispanic women, assessing their efficacy beliefs and providing interventions geared at increasing their beliefs can be very beneficial in broadening the range of careers they will consider. Once counselors have a better understanding of the factors influencing students' self-efficacy beliefs, they then can develop appropriate interventions to enhance these beliefs. For example, when working with Hispanic women who express low levels of self-efficacy in career areas for which they possess academic ability (e.g., science, mathematics), counselors can work with students to recognize their potential and make connections between their abilities and possible academic and career options. When students' beliefs are due to lack of exposure to certain types of experiences (such as taking science courses), counselors should encourage students to gain this type of experience. However, if the students' efficacy beliefs are based on faulty assumptions (e.g., "Women don't go into these occupations"), providing them with appropriate information and exposing them to role models may be necessary. Research conducted with students in secondary school (McWhirter, Rasheed, & Crothers, 2000; Turner & Lapan, 2004) and in college (Betz & Schifano, 2000) suggests that these types of interventions are successful in increasing students' self-efficacy for nontraditional interests and careers. For example, Betz and Schifano reported that women's confidence in their ability to perform activities classified as Realistic within Holland's (1997) vocational theory, an area for which women tend to have low interest, increased after participating in a self-efficacy-building intervention that incorporated Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy.

As previously mentioned, our study did not provide support for the expected relationship between perceived barriers and male-dominated career self-efficacy and consideration. It should be noted that these findings are consistent with the findings of other studies that examined the relationship between perceived barriers and other career variables (Flores & O'Brien, 2002; Luzzo & Hutcheson, 1996; McWhirter et al., 1998). In the McWhirter et al. (1998) study, for example, although Mexican American girls endorsed barriers to their educational and career goals, the inclusion of this variable in the path models that were tested did not contribute to the prediction of educational plans and career expectations. Similarly, Luzzo and Hutcheson found no relationship between the number of perceived barriers identified and career maturity for a sample of college students. Finally, another study reported that, although perceived barriers was predictive of career choice prestige, barriers did not influence career aspirations and the consideration of traditionally female-dominated occupations (Flores & O'Brien, 2002).

However, in this sample of Hispanic women, perceived barriers did have a positive direct influence on the consideration of female-dominated occupations. This finding suggests that the greater the perceived barriers by Hispanic women, the more likely they are to select female-dominated occupations. Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2000) suggested that the differential influence of perceived barriers found across a number of studies may be due to mediating factors, such as coping efficacy. Thus, it is possible that a coping strategy used by Hispanic women is to limit their career considerations to those traditionally considered appropriate for women and deemed perhaps more manageable. If this is the case, when working with Hispanic women, career counselors should assess the perceived barriers that may be restricting the range of careers being considered and assist these women in developing effective coping strategies. Thus, even though Hispanic women may anticipate barriers to their career pursuits, developing coping skills can ameliorate the adverse effect of barriers. However, the lack of a relationship between perceived barriers and male-dominated career consideration is puzzling. Additional research is needed to determine whether this is true for other samples of Hispanic women. Additionally, it is recommended that future research with this population include coping efficacy as a variable to assess for its role in the career consideration of Hispanic women.

Although other studies have found a relationship between acculturation and academic and career variables (e.g., McWhirter et al., 1998; Ramos & Sanchez, 1995), the results of the present study were mixed. Anglo and Hispanic acculturation did not contribute to male-dominated career self-efficacy and consideration. However, acculturation to the Anglo culture was related to higher levels of self-efficacy for female-dominated careers. This finding is consistent with those reported by Flores and O'Brien (2002) for a sample of Mexican American adolescent girls in which greater acculturation to the Anglo culture was related to the consideration of more female-dominated and more prestigious careers. Flores and O'Brien suggested that this may be due to a tendency for more Anglo-acculturated women to avoid careers dominated by men given their greater awareness of the sociopolitical atmosphere they may encounter in these types of settings.

It is important to note that participants in the current study scored high on the measures of Anglo and Hispanic acculturation and, thus, could be considered bicultural (Marin & Gamba, 1996). Given the complexity of the acculturation process, whereby individuals may adapt to the new culture while retaining strong ties with their culture of origin (Casas & Pytluk, 1995), it is possible that the Hispanic women in the present sample still adhere to more traditional values and expectations of the roles of women, even though they may consider themselves acculturated to the Anglo culture. Additionally, it is also worth considering that other factors may be influencing the career considerations of Hispanic women. For example, Vazquez-Nuttal, Romero-Garcia, and DeLeon (1987) suggested that factors such as women's gender role attitudes, level of education, and personality characteristics, in addition to acculturation, may influence Hispanic women's roles and behaviors. Thus, when working with Hispanic women, in addition to assessing for level of acculturation, counselors also need to consider other variables that we did not include in our study, such as SES, gender role attitudes, and personality characteristics, which can influence women's career considerations.

The current findings did not support the expected relationship between role model influence and male- or female-dominated career self-efficacy and consideration. This finding is inconsistent with research that has found a direct relationship between role model influence and career-related constructs (e.g., Hackett et al., 1989; Nauta et al., 1998). Perhaps the current findings are related to the types of occupations held by the most influential role models for these women, including their mothers, aunts, sisters, and other women. Given the employment trends of Hispanic women, it is likely that the role models for the women in the current sample are employed in more traditional types of occupations, thus offering a limited range of career options, which, in turn, may affect the perception of options available to minority women (Bingham & Ward, 1994). Therefore, although these role models play a positive influence in Hispanic women's educational and career pursuits (i.e., offering strong support and encouragement for them to pursue an education and achieve some type of career), they may not necessarily affect pursuits of academic and career goals traditionally dominated by men. These results suggest that efforts need to be made to expose these women to a wider range of career role models in order to expand the range of careers they would consider.

Some limitations of the present study warrant consideration. First, the low response rate (i.e., 30% after incomplete surveys are eliminated) raises some concerns about the generalizability of the results. One possible explanation for the low response rate may be the wide distribution of surveys in classes and club meetings. Students may have felt obligated to take the surveys, although they may not have felt committed to completing them. Additionally, given that many of these students work and have family responsibilities, they may not have had sufficient time to devote to completing the survey. A second limitation is related to the population sampled: Hispanic female students at a 2-year college. For example, the results of this study may not be representative of Hispanic female students attending a 4-year institution or those in the workforce. As compared with students attending a 2-year college, 4-year college students may be better prepared academically, may represent a higher SES, and thus may have had more exposure to a wider range of careers to consider. Thus, it would be useful for studies to examine the utility of the social cognitive model with other samples of Hispanic women at 4-year institutions and in high school. Future studies are needed to replicate these findings with other samples of Hispanic women.

The limited use of the measures used in this study with Hispanic women also needs to be considered in interpreting the results. For example, the Cronbach's coefficient alphas obtained for the consideration measures were low for both the male- and female-dominated occupations. It is possible that the types of occupations that Hispanic women would consider were not represented in the measures used. Additional research is needed to determine the usefulness of these measures with Hispanic women; it is possible that measures specifically designed for use with Hispanic women are needed.

Another limitation of the current study is that it tests a limited number of variables that may influence Hispanic women's career considerations based on SCCT (Lent et al., 1994). The inclusion of additional variables relevant to SCCT, particularly those related to the development of self-efficacy (e.g., vicarious learning and performance accomplishments), may provide a more robust examination of the applicability of this model with Hispanic women. Furthermore, the inclusion of additional variables that examine the relationship between self-efficacy and educational and career consideration would be beneficial. For example, the inclusion of outcome expectations and interests would provide a more comprehensive framework within which to explore the relationship between self-efficacy and career consideration. In keeping with recommendations made by Lent et al. (2000), examining the influence of perceived barriers and other contextual factors on career consideration within a proximal time frame may also provide greater explication of the influence of this variable on decision making.

Given the differences obtained between the male- and female-dominated career consideration models, the inclusion of a qualitative component (e.g., grounded theory), in addition to paper-and-pencil measures, in future studies of Hispanic women's career consideration may provide useful information regarding how career decisions are weighed and the significance of barriers and other factors on decision making (Morrow, Rakhsha, & Castaneda, 2001). This may also help address the relative lack of influence of the background variables on self-efficacy. By obtaining qualitative information on the belief systems that Hispanic women hold and the factors influencing these belief systems, efforts can be made to address faulty assumptions regarding the consideration of male- and female-dominated careers.

This study provides additional support for the utility of career self-efficacy as an explanatory construct for understanding Hispanic women's career considerations. The findings on the influence of acculturation on self-efficacy and of perceived barriers on the female-dominated career consideration model but not for the male-dominated career consideration model suggest that factors may differentially influence the self-efficacy for and selection of male- and female-dominated careers for Hispanic women. Future investigations that explore the roles of these as well as other factors on both male- and female-dominated career self-efficacy and career consideration are warranted. The current findings provide some factors to consider when working with Hispanic women that can inform career-related counseling with Hispanic women in an effort to broaden the range of occupations they realistically consider.

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Lourdes M. Rivera, Department of Educational and Community Programs, Queens College, City University of New York; Eric C. Chen, Fran Blumberg, and Joseph G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological and Educational Services, Fordham University; Lisa Y. Flores, Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri-Columbia. This article was based on the doctoral dissertation of Lourdes M. Rivera, under the supervision of Eric C. Chen. Parts of this article were presented at the 109th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, August 2001. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lourdes M. Rivera, Department of Educational and Community Programs, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Boulevard, PH 032, Flushing, NY 11367 (e-mail: [e-mail]).

TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Internal Consistency
Coefficients and Correlations Between the Measured Variables

Variable                                    M     SD    [alpha]  1

1. Perceived barriers                       2.07  0.97  .98      --
2. Anglo acculturation                      3.45  0.53  .92      -.02
3. Hispanic acculturation                   3.19  0.31  .82       .04
4. Role model influence                     5.46  0.82  .85      -.02
5. Male-dominated career self-efficacy      3.14  1.84            .02
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy                      .90
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy              .94
6. Male-dominated career consideration      1.34  1.09  .76      -.04
7. Female-dominated career self-efficacy    4.88  1.98            .07
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy                      .86
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy              .91
8. Female-dominated career consideration    2.61  1.41  .65       .19*

Variable                                    2       3     4     5

1. Perceived barriers
2. Anglo acculturation                      --
3. Hispanic acculturation                   -.17*   --
4. Role model influence                      .06     .03  --
5. Male-dominated career self-efficacy       .11    -.02  .09   --
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy
6. Male-dominated career consideration      -.09     .03  .11   .38**
7. Female-dominated career self-efficacy     .23**   .07  .14   .76**
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy
8. Female-dominated career consideration    -.02    -.07  .16*  .33**

Variable                                    6      7      8

1. Perceived barriers
2. Anglo acculturation
3. Hispanic acculturation
4. Role model influence
5. Male-dominated career self-efficacy
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy
6. Male-dominated career consideration      --
7. Female-dominated career self-efficacy    .12    --
     CCQ: Job Duties Self-Efficacy
     CCQ: Education/Training Self-Efficacy
8. Female-dominated career consideration    .48**  .47**  --

Note. N = 131. Male- and female-dominated career self-efficacy are based
on the mean of scores obtained for their respective occupations of the
Job Duties Self-Efficacy and Education/Training Self-Efficacy subscales
of the Career and College Questionnaire (CCQ).
*p < .05. **p < .01.

TABLE 2 Fit Indices for Male- and Female-Dominated Career Consideration
Models

Model             [chi square]  p    CFI  GFI  RMSEA  SRMR  [R.sup.2]

Male dominated    8.07          .43  .99  .98  .01    .05   .15
Female dominated  8.98          .34  .98  .98  .03    .05   .26

Note. df = 8. CFI = comparative fit index; GFI = goodness-of-fit index;
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized
root mean square residual.