The effects of cognitive organizers to facilitate content-area learning for students with mild disabilities: a pilot study.

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effects of cognitive organizers using Inspiration 6 software to improve and enhance content-area learning in social studies for students with mild disabilities. Using a one-group, pre-posttest design, ten students with mild disabilities received instruction with the integration of technology-based strategy instruction. Dependent measures included a pretest, posttest, delayed posttest, and student satisfaction survey. Results indicated the students significantly improved from pre- to posttest measures and retained the declarative social studies knowledge for a period of one week. In addition, the students stated they enjoyed using the software in social studies instruction.

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Many students with learning disabilities in secondary content-area classrooms are challenged to meet the increased academic and curriculum demands, especially in social studies instruction (DiCecco & Gleason, 2002). According to previous research, students with learning disabilities often exhibit poor reading abilities, lack effective strategy instruction and have deficient study and organization skills (Boyle et al., 2003; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Spencer, & Fontana, 2003). In addition, Maheady et al. (1988) suggests that these students may not have developed sufficient work-related habits to compensate for such skill deficits. Thus, these students often have difficulty reading and learning content-area information independently from expository textbooks (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004). In spite of these difficulties, textbooks are the most commonly used tool to present social studies information in secondary content-area classrooms for students with disabilities (Harniss, Dickson, Kinder & Hollenbeck, 2001).

Despite such shortcomings, recent research has revealed some promising strategies to facilitate declarative social studies knowledge for students with disabilities in secondary social studies classes (see De La Paz & MacArthur, 2003 for review). For example, the use of computerized study guides (Higgins & Boone, 1990: Higgins & Boone, 1992; Higgins, Boone, & Lovitt, 1996; Horton, Boone. & Lovitt, 1990; Horton & Lovitt, 1994; Horton, Lovitt, Givens, & Nelson, 1989), project-based learning activities (Edyburn, 1991; Ferretti, MacArthur, & Okolo. 2001; Glaser, Rieth, Kinzer, Colburn, & Peter, 2000; Okolo & Ferretti, 1997a; Okolo & Ferretti, 1997b), and computerized map tutorials (Gleason, Carnine, & Vala, 1991; Horton, Lovitt, & Slocum, 1988) has been demonstrated to facilitate the learning and performance for students with and without disabilities in social studies instruction. In addition, the integration of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has improved the academic performance, comprehension, and motivation for students with disabilities (Ferretti et al., 2001). However, there is limited research on the impact and effectiveness of technology-based practices in social studies instruction at the secondary level (Maccini, Gagnon, & Hughes, 2002). Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the impact of Inspiration 6 software to facilitate the learning and academic performance for students with mild disabilities in high school social studies instruction.

Method

Sample Description

Participants

Students. The students included 10 tenth grade high school students with mild to moderate disabilities, including eight students with learning disabilities, one student with mild mental retardation, and one student with emotional disabilities. All students met the federal and state criteria for inclusion in special education for specific disability classification. Five of the students were male and five were female. The total number of students included live Hispanic American, lout Caucasian, and one African-American student. The students with learning disabilities were an average age of 15.8 years and the student with mild mental retardation was 16 years old, while the student with emotional disabilities was 19 years old. The total mean age of the sample was 16.2 (range 15 to 19) years.

The intelligence quotients, on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (1991), for students with learning disabilities ranged from 79 to 101 with a mean Performance IQ of 91 (SD = 8.33); with a mean Verbal IQ of 89.7 (SD = 9.51); with a mean Full Scale IQ of 89.2 (SD = 7.40). The IQ score of the student with mental retardation was 72 with a mean Performance IQ of 59; with a mean Verbal IQ score of 91. The IQ score of the student with emotional disabilities was 77 with a mean Performance IQ score of 80; with a mean Verbal IQ score of 77. The students with learning disabilities reading comprehension grade equivalents ranged from 2.0 to 5.3, with a mean of 3.65 (SD = 1.72) and their basic reading grade equivalents ranged from 1.6 to 4.7, with a mean of 3.02 (SD = 1.11) on the Woodcock Johnson-Revised (1989). The student with mental retardation had a reading comprehension grade equivalent score of 2.7 and a mean of 1.7 on basic reading skills. The student with emotional disabilities had a reading comprehension grade equivalent score of 4.9 and a mean of 3.9 on basic reading skills.

Teacher. One high school special education teacher who was the regularly assigned teacher for World History/Geography II class participated in the study. The teacher was a Caucasian male with a master's degree in special education in his second year of teaching.

Materials

Student Materials

Materials consisted of student folders, disks, desktop computers, textbooks and Inspiration 6 software. Folders included reading materials, small notecards containing the procedures to use the software, disks containing software templates, and a paper-and-pencil template of the instructional lesson.

The tenth grade textbook, Exploring World History (O'Connor, 1994), adopted by the school district, was used. Text chapters were divided into five to seven sections. The sections in the chapter included timelines, illustrations, political maps, and highlighted vocabulary words. In addition, review activities consisted of practicing vocabulary highlighted in the chapter, sequencing and making predictions, and answering critical thinking and comprehension questions.

Teacher Materials

Teacher materials included lesson plans, folders, 3.5-inch disks, textbooks, desktop computers, and use of Inspiration 6 software. Also, notecards were designed and developed to reinforce procedures to use the software (see Appendix B). Lesson plans included in the adopted textbook were used in corroboration with research-based teacher effectiveness variables (structure, clarity, redundancy, enthusiasm, appropriate rate, maximize engagement) (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2004). In addition, each student received a blank two-pocket folder containing a 3.5-inch disk. The disk contained two templates designed in Inspiration 6 software to be used during the training session and teacher presentation. In addition, ten Gateway desktop computers installed with Inspiration 6 software were used. Finally, students were provided a notecard describing each function and feature of the software.

Inspiration 6 Software

The technology-based program, Inspiration 6 software (Inspiration Software, Inc., 2000) is an information-organizing program to spatially represent content-area material and to make implicit learning tasks more explicit (Anderson-Inman, Knox-Quinn, & Horney, 1996). In addition, the software enables students to design and construct a cognitive organizer integrated with various graphics, pictures, and templates. In addition, the software program can covert content material with graphics into outline formats. The features of the software provide users options to design, create, record, organize, revise. and synthesize content-area learning tasks. For example, in the pilot study students were provided a template designed in Inspiration 6 software to compare and contrast the similarities and differences between the Aztec, Inca, and Maya civilizations. Using the template, students were able to organize, revise, and synthesize the most important information in the chapter into one cognitive organizer. In addition, students were able to make comparisons between the three civilizations and recall information pertinent to specific attributes located on the cognitive organizer (see Appendix A).

Dependent Measures

Quantitative Measures

The dependent measures included a pretest, immediate and delayed posttest, and student satisfaction survey. The pre- and posttest measures were based on the state standards and World History/Geography II goals and objectives for tenth grade. The pretest consisted of a 15-item production test on the Civilizations of the Americas--The Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas (see Appendix C). Students were asked to produce the answer to 15 questions describing the various attributes of the three civilizations (e.g., What was the religion of the Inca Empire?). The immediate and delayed posttest measures were identical to the pretest. The delayed posttest measure was administered one week after completion of the pilot study to assess the student's retention of the social studies declarative knowledge.

Procedures

There was one high school social studies classroom special education teacher who agreed to participate in the pilot study. The participating teacher worked directly with university faculty for the duration of the pilot study. The teacher completed daily logs that contained information on his instructional practices, materials, and amount of time for activities, and any issues that arose during instruction (see Appendix E).

Day One

The technology-based instructional lessons using Inspiration 6 software were delivered in the high school computer lab. The computer lab contained 32 Gateway 233 desktop computers set up along the walls and center of the classroom. Students were provided a folder containing a pretest, blank cognitive organizer using Inspiration 6 software, and a 3.5-inch disk containing two templates to demonstrate the functions and features of the software. First, the students were administered a pretest on the Civilizations of the Americas--The Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas. Second, the teacher described the purpose of the cognitive organizer and how this strategy can help students remember the most important information in the chapter. Third, the teacher described the software program, Inspiration 6, as a computer-based program that allows students to create electronic outlines and diagrams.

Next. the students were provided a template using Inspiration 6 software. The template contained three major league baseball teams and five attributes (location, state, team colors, stadium, and league). The teacher modeled and demonstrated the features and functions of the software on the screen using an overhead projector from the computer. For example, the teacher demonstrated how to insert text, use the outline function, insert graphics and clip art, and menus to change the font, background, and color selection. Students then worked independently at the computers to complete their cognitive organizers. Finally, after completing the template the teacher reviewed the cognitive organizer and asked students to identify the similarities and differences among the three baseball teams. For example, "What two major league baseball teams are from the same city?" See Appendix F for an example of the cognitive organizer illustrating the three baseball teams and their five attributes.

Day Two

Students met in the regular classroom and were introduced to the chapter in their social studies textbook on the Civilizations of the Americas--The Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas. Next, students reviewed the purpose and benefits of using a cognitive organizer and were then provided a blank cognitive organizer to complete. The cognitive organizer consisted of a main idea box (Civilizations of the Americas), three subtopic boxes (Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas), and five attributes (location, government, religion, fanning, and innovations) representing each of the five subtopics to be discussed in the chapter (see Appendix D).

Using the blank cognitive organizer, students were asked to fill-in the appropriate answers for each of the civilizations during the teacher presentation. During the presentation, the teacher displayed the identical blank cognitive organizer on the overhead projector while lecturing on the characteristics of The Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas civilizations. During the presentation, the teacher completed the blank cognitive organizer and students completed their paper-and-pencil versions. Throughout the presentation, students were asked to analyze the cognitive organizer and determine similarities and differences between the three civilizations. Students were asked to locate the three civilizations on the top of their cognitive organizer and examine the five attributes of each civilization. Then, the students were asked to make comparisons between the three civilizations. After analyzing the cognitive organizer, the teacher asked questions regarding the various attributes of the civilizations. For example, "What are three similarities between the Aztec, Inca, and Maya empires? Finally, upon completion of the presentation the teacher reviewed the completed cognitive organizers.

Day Three

Students returned to the high school computer lab and completed the Aztec, Inca, Maya template using Inspiration 6 software. After reviewing the chart and discussing the information from day two, the students were provided a disk version identical to their paper-and-pencil template. Next, the students were asked to transfer the content-area information from their paper-and-pencil cognitive organizer into the Inspiration 6 software. Students worked independently to complete the electronic cognitive organizer at the computer. Students continued to fill-in their electronic cognitive organizer transferring the identical information from the paper-and-pencil format into the Inspiration 6 software. Finally, students were provided additional time and support to insert pictures, graphics, clip art, or change the font, background, or color selection of their cognitive organizer.

Upon completion of their cognitive organizer, the students were asked to print out and view one copy of their cognitive organizer and one outline using the outline function of the software. Next, students were asked to study their cognitive organizer and outline independently for 10 minutes. The teacher controlled and monitored the time for independent study of their cognitive organizer. The teacher provided a review and synthesis of the chapter and asked students various questions regarding the three civilizations and their attributes.

Day Four

Students presented their cognitive organizers to the class discussing the main ideas and key components of the chapter. This provided an additional opportunity to practice the content and facilitate learning of the material. Finally, the students completed an immediate posttest consisting of a 15-item production test identical to the pretest.

Day Five

Students were administered a delayed posttest, one week alter completion of the pilot study, containing the identical information from the immediate posttest. Then, the students were surveyed and asked their perceptions and attitudes toward using Inspiration 6 software in social studies and if the software enabled them to remember more of the social studies information.

Data Analysis Procedures

Scoring Quantitative Measures

One method of scoring was used on all tests (pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest). The method of scoring awarded points from zero to two on each item. A score of "zero" was assigned no credit, a score of "one" was assigned partial credit, and a score of "two" was assigned full credit. For example, on the item, "Machu Picchu was the leading city in which Latin American Empire", if a student answered Aztec, a score of "zero" was assigned indicating no credit. In another example, on the item, "Name the three great Indian civilizations of Latin America", if a student answered Maya and Aztec, a score of "one" was assigned indicating partial credit to the response. Finally, on the item, "What civilization built floating gardens known as chinapas", if a student answered Inca, a score of "two" was assigned indicating the student has achieved full credit to the response.

Results

A one-group, nonrandomized, pre-posttest design was implemented. One group of students was observed to evaluate the effectiveness of technology-based instruction using a cognitive organizer designed in Inspiration 6 software. Data were scored and entered into SPSS for analyses. A paired samples t-test was used to evaluate the difference between the pre-posttest scores and pretest-delayed posttest measures to assess the improvement of content knowledge. As can be seen in Table 1, the mean pretest score was 0.4 (SD = .9661, range 0 - 3); while the posttest score was 20.11 (SD = 5.46, range 11 - 28); and the delayed posttest score was 19.10 (SD = 6.60, range 12 - 30). The results indicated statistically significant differences (pre-posttest p < .04; pretest-delayed posttest p < .02) that the participation in the pilot study improved and enhanced student learning of the content material. Overall, the results of the pilot study indicated a significant improvement from pre- to posttest measures on student recall and comprehension of the content material.

Informal Survey Data

Upon completion of the pilot study, students were informally asked their attitudes and perceptions toward using the software in social studies. In addition, students were asked whether the software enabled them to remember more information and increase motivation. Results indicated that the majority of the students stated they liked using Inspiration 6 software and it helped them remember the most important information in the textbook without reading the entire chapter. Furthermore, students indicated they were more motivated to use the software and enjoyed the novelty of using computers during social studies instruction.

Conclusions

Results of the pilot study indicate that the use of the cognitive organizer with the integration of technology, Inspiration 6 software, has the potential to increase recall of content-area learning tasks for students with mild disabilities. The informal survey data indicated that students were motivated in social studies class and liked to use the Inspiration 6 software to record, organize, edit, and summarize the most important information from the chapter. Students also reported they enjoyed the novelty of using computers during social studies instruction.

Nevertheless, there are a number of limitations to be considered in interpreting the findings from this study. Some of these limitations include a relatively small sample size, lack of a comparison group, novelty effects of the software, single content-area, and limited representation of various disability categories. However, based on this pilot study, future research is warranted to replicate and extend the use of cognitive organizers, with the integration of Inspiration 6 software, across age, grade level, disability categories, content areas, and instructional settings.

APPENDICIES

Pilot Study Materials

APPENDIX A

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

APPENDIX B

Technology-based Instruction Materials Inspiration 6 Software Directions

OPEN A FILE: Select start, programs, Inspiration 6 software, file, open, Look in: A: drive, choose file name (i.e., BASEBALL), double-click to open file.

INSERT TEXT: Double-click inside the template box (you will see a blinking cursor) type in boxes (* If the box is "highlighted" with red rectangles, click one more time to insert text material).

CHANGE FONT: Click "once" inside the template box (template box will be highlighted with red rectangles), Select format and choose any font styles in the program.

CHANGE SIZE OF TEXT: Click "once" inside the template box (template box will be highlighted with red rectangles), Select size and choose any font/text sizes in the program.

CHANGE STYLE (i.e., bold, italic, underline, all CAPS) Click "once" inside the template box (template box will be highlighted with red rectangles), Select style and choose any font styles in the program.

INSERT PICTURES/CLIP ART: Select view and choose SYMBOL PALETTE or F8 (* Perform this task if the students symbol palette is NOT displayed on their screen. It appears on the left column of the software and includes a palette of pictures/clip art to insert into the template).

Click "once" on the template box you want to insert a picture (template box will be highlighted with red rectangles).

Select a picture/clip art and the picture will appear on the highlighted template box.

REPLACE A PICTURE/CLIP ART: Click "once" on the picture you inserted in the template box. Select a "new" picture (* The new picture will override the "old" picture).

DELETE A PICTURE/CLIP ART: Click "once" on the picture you inserted in the template box. Select the blank rectangle on the SYMBOL PALETTE.

OUTLINE FORMAT: Select OUTLINE icon (or Ctrl + T) Select DIAGRAM icon to return back to the template/cognitive organizer

SPELL CHECK: Select UTILITY and choose SPELL CHECK click on START. After you spell check template select close.

SAVE WORK: Select FILE and SAVE AS (Before you EXIT Inspiration 6 Software)

HOW TO SAVE AUTOMATICALLY (EVERY 5 MINUTES!!!) Choose FILE, APPLICATION PROPERTIES, AUTO SAVE (5 MINUTES)!

PRINT: (Template and Outline) Select FILE, PRINT OPTIONS, Fit to 1 Page, select OK. Select FILE and choose PRINT

EXIT Inspiration 6 Software: Select FILE, EXIT or (Ctrl + Q) SAVE changes to--(Choose YES to save your work)

COMMON ERROR: During training or implementation of the software, when content is inserted or the font/style modified the boxes in the template may shift or move. This will change the appearance of the template as well as the outline function of the software. If this occurs DON'T PANIC!! The following procedures will rescue most templates that have been altered or modified.

Select ARRANGE icon Choose Top Down Tree, Entire Diagram, Links (Auto-90), Lowest Stacking Models (center) Click OK!

APPENDIX C

Unit 5--Chapter 7 Civilizations of the Americas

Objective: What are the similarities and differences of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations of the Americas?

1. Name the three great Indian civilizations of Latin America?

2. What was the location of the Aztecs?

3. What was the government of the Inca Empire?

4. What did the farmers in the Maya civilization produce?

5. What was the religion of the Mayas?

6. What was the location of the Incas?

7. What was the government of the Aztec Empire?

8. What did the farmers in the Aztec Empire produce?

9. Machu Picchu was the leading city in which Latin American Empire?

10. What civilization built floating gardens known as chinampas?

11. Which civilization developed pyramids known as steles?

12. Which civilization used "quipu" to keep and maintain government records?

13. Which civilization developed a writing system using pictures and symbols?

14. Which civilization developed a system of mathematics?

15. Name (3) similarities between the three civilizations in Latin America?

APPENDIX D

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

APPENDIX E

Name:

Date:

Technology-Based Instruction Condition Chapter: Section:

Instructional Lesson:

Daily Logs

A. Instructional Practices:

B. Materials:

C. Amount of time for activities:

D. Issues surrounding instruction:

APPENDIX F

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

APPENDIX G

Major League Baseball Teams--Guided Outline

Major League Baseball Teams

BASEBALL TEAM FEATURES

A. LOCATION

B. STATE

C. COLORS

D. STADIUM

E. LEAGUE

YANKEES

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

ORIOLES

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

METS

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

Table 1
Mean Scores on Social Studies Declarative Knowledge

    Sources         N        M      SD     Minimum  Maximum

Pretest             10      .40     .97       .00      3.00
Posttest             9    20.11    5.46     11.00     28.00
Delayed Posttest    10    19.10    6.61     12.00     30.00

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Richard T. Boon, Cecil Fore, III, Kevin Ayres, The University of Georgia. Vicky G. Spencer, George Mason University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addresssed to Richard T. Boon. The University of Georgia, Department of Special Education, 537 Aderhold Hall, Athens. GA 30602-7153; Email: [e-mail]