The effect of dietary weight loss supplements containing caffeine on the mass and metabolic rate of rats.Abstract Obesity is a growing trend in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. today. The 19990-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey revealed that 65% of adults over the age of 20 are overweight or obese. Therefore, it is no surprise that the sale of dietary supplements is a $19.4 billion per year industry, a significant portion of which is advertised to promote weight loss by boosting metabolism. Manufacturers do not have to prove their product produces results as advertised and that it is not harmful. The Federal Drug Administration, the government agency that polices this industry, allots only $10 million and 60 persons to investigate claims that a product has caused harm and does not investigate efficacy at all. Therefore, the purpose of this experiment was to study if two dietary supplements that contain caffeine, a known thermogenic ther·mo·gen·e·sis n. Generation or production of heat, especially by physiological processes. ther drug, increased the metabolic rate Noun 1. metabolic rate - rate of metabolism; the amount of energy expended in a give period basal metabolic rate, BMR - the rate at which heat is produced by an individual in a resting state and promoted weight loss in rats. The two supplements included in this study were One a Day Weight Smart and Stacker 2 Ephedra ephedra: see ephedrine. Free. Groups of 10 rats each received one of these supplements ground and added to its rat chow. Weight and metabolic rate were measured at the outset of the experiment and at weekly intervals for four weeks. Results indicated that the group of rats receiving Stacker 2 Ephedra Free gained statistically significantly less weight and gained it at a statistically significantly slower rate than rats receiving One a Day Weight Smart or the control group. However, there was no statistically significant difference in metabolic rate of the three groups across time. These results present evidence that One A Day Weight Smart does not promote weight loss or stimulate metabolic rate and that Stacker 2 Ephedra Free does promote weight loss, but does not do so by stimulating metabolic rate. Key Words: caffeine, dietary supplement, green tea extract, Kola nuts, metabolic rate, weight loss 1. Introduction Obesity is a growing problem in America today. Not only is the majority of the American adult population overweight, the problem is growing. The 1988-94 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, using body mass index (BMI BMI body mass index. BMI abbr. body mass index Body mass index (BMI) A measurement that has replaced weight as the preferred determinant of obesity. ) as an indicator, revealed that 56% of American adults, age 20 years and older, are overweight or obese (BMI > 25.0). In a repeat survey conducted between 1999-2002, this figure increased to 65% (National Center for Health Statistics National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which is part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. NCHS is the United States' principal health statistics agency. 2004). Therefore, it is no surprise to find that the sale of dietary supplements of all types is a $19.4 billion per year industry (Nutrition Business Journal 1999). A growing portion of such supplements claim to assist in weight control. Unfortunately, these weight loss products do not require approval or testing for efficacy by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA FDA abbr. Food and Drug Administration FDA, n.pr See Food and Drug Administration. FDA, n.pr the abbreviation for the Food and Drug Administration. ). The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA DSHEA Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (US legislation) ) was passed by the United States Congress in 1994. This act allows "dietary supplement" products, including herbs or other botanicals that claim to affect the structure or function of the body to be marketed without prior approval from any government agency. The only requirements are that the label must carry a disclaimer stating that the supplement has not been approved by the government and the manufacturer may not claim that the supplement cures, treats, prevents, or diagnoses a specific disease (United States Food and Drug Administration United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), n.pr a unit of the Public Health Service created to protect the health of the nation against impure and unsafe foods, drugs, and cosmetics. 1995). If a subsequent question arises regarding the safety of a dietary supplement, the burden of proof falls on the FDA, not the manufacturer. Unfortunately, the FDA allots only $10 million and 60 individuals to police the sale of dietary supplements. In cases of suspected harm from a supplement, the FDA must first conduct its own experiments to prove that the supplement is harmful, before it can mandate its removal from the market. This process may take years, during which time many unsuspecting consumers may continue to use the product without being aware of the potential dangers associated with its use. As such, new dietary supplements are continually produced and marketed without any proof of effectiveness or safety (Consumer Reports 2004). Three compounds commonly found in herbal weight control supplements that have been shown to increase the body's metabolic rate (thermogenesis thermogenesis /ther·mo·gen·e·sis/ (-jen´e-sis) the production of heat, especially within the animal body.thermogenet´icthermogen´ic ther·mo·gen·e·sis n. ) are caffeine, green tea extract, and kola nut seeds. Increasing the body's metabolic rate is a common strategy for promoting weight loss. Metabolic rate reflects the body's usage of the energy molecule, adenosine adenosine /aden·o·sine/ (ah-den´o-sen) a purine nucleoside consisting of adenine and ribose; a component of RNA. It is also a cardiac depressant and vasodilator used as an antiarrhythmic and as an adjunct in myocardial perfusion imaging triphosphate triphosphate /tri·phos·phate/ (tri-fos´fat) a salt containing three phosphate radicals. tri·phos·phate n. A salt or ester containing three phosphate groups. (ATP ATP: see adenosine triphosphate. ATP in full adenosine triphosphate Organic compound, substrate in many enzyme-catalyzed reactions (see catalysis) in the cells of animals, plants, and microorganisms. ), in order to conduct the chemical reactions This is the 18th episode of television drama Men in Trees. It originally aired on June 25, 2007 on the TV2 network in New Zealand as a continuation of season 1. Recap Marin and Cash have a stew cook off, she admits his is better than hers. necessary to maintain life. ATP is produced via cellular respiration cellular respiration n. The series of metabolic processes by which living cells produce energy through the oxidation of organic substances. and the substrates for this series of reactions are carbohydrates and fatty acids. Therefore, if the rate at which these reactions occur increases, then the demand for substrate increases and the body obtains this by breaking down adipose adipose /ad·i·pose/ (ad´i-pos) 1. fatty. 2. the fat present in the cells of adipose tissue. ad·i·pose adj. Of, relating to, or composed of animal fat; fatty. stores. Caffeine is the most commonly consumed drug in the world. It is both water and lipid soluble, so it is widely distributed Adj. 1. widely distributed - growing or occurring in many parts of the world; "a cosmopolitan herb"; "cosmopolitan in distribution" cosmopolitan bionomics, environmental science, ecology - the branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms throughout the body. Caffeine is known to increase metabolic rate (Acheson 1980; Holland 1981; Dulloo 1989; Astrup 1990). The exact mechanism for this action is still being studied, but it has now been shown that caffeine prolongs the thermogenic actions of the sympathetic nervous system by inhibiting the activity of phosphodiesterase phosphodiesterase /phos·pho·di·es·ter·ase/ (-di-es´ter-as) any of a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolytic cleavage of an ester linkage in a phosphoric acid compound containing two such ester linkages. and by blocking adenosine receptors (Zhang 1990; Dulloo 1992). Phosphodiesterase is an enzyme responsible for the degradation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP or 3'-5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a molecule that is important in many biological processes; it is derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (cAMP) and adenosine triggers intracellular responses that decrease sympathetic activity in the cell. Therefore this combination of inhibiting phosphodiesterase and adenosine results in prolonging the actions of cAMP, an intracellular mediator ofthermogenic reactions (Dulloo 2000). Green tea, Camellia sinensis Camellia sinensis, n See green tea. , is one of the most popular beverages consumed throughout the world. The active ingredients in green tea include 10-25% catechins, primarily epigallocatechin gallate Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a type of catechin and is the most abundant catechin in tea. According to one researcher[1] epigallocatechin-3-gallate is an antioxidant that helps protect the skin from UV radiation-induced damage and tumor formation. (EGCG EGCG Epigallocatechin Gallate (antioxidant in green tea) ), 2.9-4.2% caffeine, 0.15-0.2% theobromine the·o·bro·mine n. A bitter, colorless alkaloid found in chocolate products and used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. theobromine an alkaloid prepared from dried ripe seed of the tropical American tree , and 0.02-0.04% theophylline theophylline /the·oph·yl·line/ (the-of´i-lin) a xanthine derivative found in tea leaves and prepared synthetically; its salts and derivatives act as smooth muscle relaxants, central nervous system and cardiac muscle stimulants, and (Fleming 2000). The consumption of green tea has been shown to provide several positive health benefits such as anti-carcinogenic (Oguni 1989; Hara 1989; Yang 1993; Ahmad 1999; Valcic 1999), antioxidant antioxidant, substance that prevents or slows the breakdown of another substance by oxygen. Synthetic and natural antioxidants are used to slow the deterioration of gasoline and rubber, and such antioxidants as vitamin C (ascorbic acid), butylated hydroxytoluene (Matsuzaki 1985; Lee 1995; Yen 1997), and hypocholesterolemic actions (Muramatsu 1986; Kono 1996). More recent studies have now shown that green tea is also beneficial in stimulating thermogenesis and promoting weight loss (Kao 2000; Sayama 2000; Chantre 2002; Murase 2002; Zheng 2004). Kola nut, Cola acuminata Cola acuminata, n See tree, cola. , is an evergreen tree native to West Africa West Africa A region of western Africa between the Sahara Desert and the Gulf of Guinea. It was largely controlled by colonial powers until the 20th century. West African adj. & n. . The seeds contain 0.6-3.7% caffeine and are commonly chewed to stimulate the central nervous system and combat fatigue com·bat fatigue n. Posttraumatic stress disorder resulting from wartime combat or similar experiences. No longer in scientific use. Also called battle fatigue, shell shock. . The anti-obesity effects attributed to Kola nut seeds is due entirely to its caffeine content. In animal tests, Kola nut is lipolytic lipolytic, adj/n the ability to break up fat. , stimulates gastric acid gastric acid, n the hydrochloric acid secreted by the gastric glands in the stomach; aids in the preparation of food for digestion. secretion, and increases gastric motility motility /mo·til·i·ty/ (mo-til´ite) the ability to move spontaneously.mo´tile Motility Motility is spontaneous movement. (Fleming 2000). Because of the size of the dietary supplement industry, the number of individuals spending money on and consuming these supplements, and the lack of any requirement of proof of efficacy, it is vitally important that independent researchers assist in the study of the efficacy and safety of these compounds. a. Research question Both One A Day Weight Smart and Stacker 2 Ephedra Free deliver substances shown to have thermogenic properties and therefore have the potential to promote weight loss. Is either product in its over the counter (OTC OTC See: Over-the-counter. OTC See over-the-counter market (OTC). ) marketed form effective at increasing metabolic rate and promoting weight loss in rats? From the research question, two null hypotheses were developed. 1. There is no statistically significant difference over time in the mass of rats that do or do not receive OTC herbal supplements advertised to promote weight loss. 2. There is no statistically significant difference over time in the metabolic rate of rats that do or do not receive OTC herbal supplements advertised to enhance metabolism. 2. Methods a. Animals and diet The experimental animal chosen for this study was the Long-Evans rat (Rattus norvegicus), purchased from Harlan Sprague-Dawley. This particular strain of rat is recommended for nutrition and diet studies because it is prone to diet-induced obesity. The study utilized 30 female rats with an initial weight between 150-174g. The rats were housed in a dedicated animal room kept at a constant temperature of 23[degrees]C. The room contains an outside window, exposing the animals to normal day-night lighting. Prior to the experiment, the animals were allowed to adapt to their environment for three days. During this time they had free access to water and commercial rat chow. This study received prior approval from the institution's Animal Welfare Committee and care of the animals was conducted according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. its guidelines and regulations. b. One A Day Weight Smart One A Day Weight Smart is manufactured by Bayer Health. It is marketed as a product to "keep your metabolism going strong" to be taken as a vitamin along with exercise to control weight. It contains 15 mg of caffeine powder and 32 mg of EGCG. Recommended daily dosage of this product is 1 per day with meals (Bayer Health 2005). c. Stacker 2 Ephedra Free Stacker 2 Ephedra Free is marketed by NVE Pharmaceuticals NVE Pharmaceuticals is a manufacturer of several herbal supplement products which claim to help lose weight.
adj. Without water, especially water of crystallization. anhydrous (anhī´drus), adj without water. anhydrous containing no water. caffeine and the second is kola nut seeds. The kola nut seeds are contained in a proprietary blend of herbs and the exact amount is not listed. Recommended daily dosage for this product is one capsule after each meal (NVE Pharmaceuticals 2005). d. Using indirect calorimetry calorimetry (kăl'ərĭm`ətrē), measurement of heat and the determination of heat capacity to estimate metabolic rate Metabolic reactions that produce energy consume oxygen at a constant rate. Therefore it is possible to indirectly measure metabolic rate by measuring oxygen consumption (Brooks 1984). Approximately 4.82 kcal of heat are liberated per liter of oxygen consumed. This relatively simple, indirect method of estimating metabolic rate has been shown to give comparable results to direct methods of measuring which are highly accurate, but impractical for typical studies (Snellen 1980). In this study, a respirometer respirometer /res·pi·rom·e·ter/ (res?pi-rom´e-ter) an instrument for determining the nature of respiration. res·pi·rom·e·ter n. An instrument for measuring the degree and nature of respiration. was utilized for the indirect measurement of metabolic rate. A respirometer (see Figure 1) is an airtight container in which the animal was placed. Soda lime soda lime n. A mixture of calcium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide used to absorb carbon dioxide in rebreathing apparatus and in anesthesia circuits. (sodium calcium hydroxide calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, colorless crystal or white powder. It is prepared by reacting calcium oxide (lime) with water, a process called slaking, and is also known as hydrated lime or slaked lime. ) was placed in the bottom of the respirometer to react with and remove the carbon dioxide carbon dioxide, chemical compound, CO2, a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is about one and one-half times as dense as air under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure. from the air exhaled by the rat. Therefore, the change in volume of gas inside the respirometer was due to the inhalation and utilization of oxygen by the rat for cellular respiration. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] At the outset of the procedure the fluid levels in the two arms of the manometer tube were equal. As oxygen was taken up by the rat, the fluid in the manometer tube moved towards the respirometer. Pushing in the plunger on the syringe returned the fluid to equal levels in both arms. By watching the milliliter milliliter /mil·li·li·ter/ (mL) (-le?ter) one thousandth (10-3) of a liter. mil·li·li·ter n. Abbr. calibrations on the syringe, it was possible to measure the length of time necessary for the rat to consume 10mL of oxygen. From the experimentally determined time required to consume 10mL of oxygen, the remainder of the metabolic rate estimation was a series of mathematical steps. First, milliliters of oxygen consumed in 10 minutes was converted to milliliters of oxygen consumed in one hour. This value then must be adjusted to standard temperature and pressure. In order to accomplish this calculation, the temperature of the air inside the respirometer was measured in Celsius and converted to Kelvin and dry atmospheric pressure atmospheric pressure or barometric pressure Force per unit area exerted by the air above the surface of the Earth. Standard sea-level pressure, by definition, equals 1 atmosphere (atm), or 29.92 in. (760 mm) of mercury, 14.70 lbs per square in., or 101. was determined by subtracting the vapor pressure vapor pressure, pressure exerted by a vapor that is in equilibrium with its liquid. A liquid standing in a sealed beaker is actually a dynamic system: some molecules of the liquid are evaporating to form vapor and some molecules of vapor are condensing to form liquid. of water from the atmospheric pressure. The adjusted oxygen consumption in mL/hr is then multiplied by 0.004825 kcal/mL oxygen to yield kilocalories of energy produced per hour (kcal/hr). Finally, this value must be adjusted for body size. It has been known since the late 1800s that energy metabolism Energy metabolism Energy metabolism, or bioenergetics, is the study of energy changes that accompany biochemical reactions. Energy sustains the work of biosynthesis of cellular and extracellular components, the transport of ions and organic chemicals against was proportional to surface area rather than mass. This research led to the so-called "Surface Area Law" and is the basis for the common practice of dividing kcal/hr by the surface area of an animal to yield kcal/hr/[m.sup.2]. This value then may be used to compare the metabolic rate of larger and smaller animals (McArdle 1991). In this experiment, surface area was determined by using standard tables of body surface area based on mass (Taylor 1962). e. Experimental Methods The rats were divided into three groups of 10 rats each: one control group and two treatment groups, one for One A Day Weight Smart and one for Stacker 2 Ephedra Free. Each rat received 45g of ground commercial rat chow each day. The control group did not receive any supplements with its food. Each treatment group received either One a Day Weight Smart tablets or Stacker 2 Ephedra Free capsules ground and mixed with its chow. Each rat received the human recommended daily dose of the supplement per week. It was not possible to scale down the human daily dose for rats. The amount of supplement per day would have been so small that it would not have been possible to know that the rats actually consumed any supplement on any given day. Therefore, each treatment group rat received either one One a Day Weight Smart tablet per week or three Stacker 2 Ephedra Free capsules per week. Pre-treatment, each rat was weighed and had its metabolic rate measured. The amount of time necessary for the rat to consume 10mL of oxygen was measured three times and an average time was calculated. The mathematical steps described in the preceding section were then completed and metabolic rate (kcal/hr/[m.sup.2]) was recorded. The treatment phase lasted four weeks. Weight and metabolic rate were measured weekly for four weeks. 3. Results a. Mass The mean mass of each group of rats is reported in Table 1. The control group gained the most weight. The mean mass for this group increased 32.2% from 158.34g to 209.26g. The One A Day group gained almost as much weight as the control group. The mean mass for this group increased 28.2% from 163.08g to 209.13g. The Stacker 2 group gained the least weight. The mean mass for this group increased 23.5% from 163.41g to 201.85g. All three groups of rats gained weight as they grew older. The weight gain seen in all three groups closely mirrored each other through the first week of the experiment. By the end of the second week (the 11/25/2004 measurement), the Stacker 2 group appeared to be gaining weight at a slower rate than the other two groups. This trend continued through the remainder of the experiment. By the end of the fourth week (the 12/9/2004 measurement), the Control and One A Day groups had gained weight at a similar rate. However, the Stacker 2 group gained less weight and it is especially important to point out that this group gained very little weight during the fourth and final week of the experiment. Statistical analysis of mean mass gained by treatment group between the pre-treatment measurement and the end of the 4 week experimental period revealed a statistically significant difference in the mass gained by the groups (Oneway ANOVA anova see analysis of variance. ANOVA Analysis of variance, see there ; F = 3.3764; df = 2; p = 0.0491). Pairwise comparisons using Tukey-Kramer indicated that the significant difference was between the control group and the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free group. The One A Day Weight Smart was not significantly different from the control group. Figure 2 illustrates the rate of weight gain for each treatment group. Regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. of the rate of change in mean mass over time finds that the rate of weight gain by the control group and One A Day group are statistically significantly greater than 0 (Control group: F = 243.2675, df = 3, p = 0.0041; One A Day group: F = 19.2070; df = 3; p = 0.0483), indicating that as the rats in these groups aged, they gained weight at a faster pace. However, the rate of weight gain by the Stacker 2 group was not statistically significantly different than 0 (F = 11.43; df = 3; p = 0.0775), indicating negligible weight gain over time. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] b. Metabolic Rate Mean metabolic rate for each treatment group of rats is found in Table 2. The mean metabolic rate for each group of rats varied throughout the entire experiment. However, it was observed that the metabolic rate for each group of rats generally decreased over time. The metabolic rate of the control group decreased 5.1% from 49.57 to 47.03 kcal/hr/[m.sup.2]. The metabolic rate of the One A Day group decreased 29% from 68.21 to 48.17 kcal/hr/[m.sup.2]. The metabolic rate of the Stacker 2 group decreased 9.8% from 63.32 to 57.09 kcal/hr/[m.sup.2]. The mean metabolic rate of each group of rats was not statistically equal at the outset of the experiment. Therefore absolute changes in metabolic rate over time could not be analyzed. However, rate of change in metabolic rate within each group could be analyzed by regression analysis to determine if the rate of change in metabolic rate was significantly different from 0. Results of the regression analysis indicate that the change in mean metabolic rate over time for each group of rats was not statistically significantly different than 0 (control group: F = 0.0001, df = 3, p = 0.7286; One A Day group: F = 0.2212, df = 3, p = 0.6844; Stacker 2 group: F = 0.1590, df = 3, p = 0.9920). These results indicate that neither herbal supplement, One A Day Weight Smart or Stacker 2 Ephedra Free, affected the rate of change in the metabolic rate of the rats within its group. 4. Discussion It is normal for mass to increase and metabolic rate to decrease as an animal ages. Therefore, it was expected to find that all the rats gained weight and experienced a reduction in metabolic rate as they aged. Evidence that either dietary supplement was successful at promoting weight loss or enhancing metabolic rate would be that a treatment group gained significantly less weight, gained weight at a significantly slower rate, or reported a significantly slower rate of decline in metabolic rate than the control group. a. Mass The null hypothesis null hypothesis, n theoretical assumption that a given therapy will have results not statistically different from another treatment. null hypothesis, n relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc mass was: There is no statistically significant difference over time in the mass of rats that did or did not receive OTC herbal supplements advertised to promote weight loss. The results of this experiment led to a rejection of this null hypothesis for the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free group of rats, but failed to reject the null hypothesis for the One A Day Weight Smart group of rats. There was no initial difference in the average mass of the three groups of rats. However, by the end of the second week of treatment, the Stacker 2 rats reported less weight gain than either the Control or One A Day group. This group continued to gain weight at a slower pace for the remainder of the treatment period. And, by the end of the experiment, the difference in mass between the Stacker 2 group and the other two groups had reached the statistically significant level. Therefore, it is the conclusion of this experiment, that the group of rats receiving the herbal supplement, Stacker 2 Ephedra Free, gained significantly less weight over a four week period of time than the Control group or the One A Day Weight Smart group. In addition to gaining less weight than the control or One A Day groups, regression analysis showed that the Stacker 2 group gained weight at a consistent rate. While the Control and One A Day groups gained weight at an increasing rate. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , as these groups aged, they gained weight at a faster and faster rate. The rate of weight gain in the Stacker 2 group remained steady through out the experiment. These results support the conclusion that rats receiving Stacker 2 Ephedra Free gained less weight and gained weight at a slower rate than either the Control group or the One A Day Weight Smart group. b. Metabolic Rate As noted earlier, a gradual decrease in the metabolic rate of each group of rats was expected over time due to natural changes in the body's activity levels that occur with aging. It was also anticipated, based on the review of literature (Acheson 1980; Holland 1981; Dulloo 1989; Astrup 1990; Dulloo 2000) that the groups of rats receiving caffeine, especially any group that reported less weight gain, would experience a smaller decline in metabolic rate than the control group. The data failed to reject the null hypothesis that there was no statistically significant difference over time in the metabolic rate of rats that did or did not receive OTC herbal supplements advertised to enhance metabolic rate. All three groups of rats exhibited a statistically consistent rate of decline in metabolic rate over the time of the experiment. These results support the conclusion that neither OTC herbal supplement altered the metabolic rate of the rats. c. Discussion The results of these experiments indicates that rats given Stacker 2 Ephedra Free gained less weight and at a slower rate than either the control Group or the One A Day Weight Smart group. The One A Day rats gained the same weight at the same rate as the control rats. Therefore, Stacker 2 Ephedra Free appears to promote weight loss in rats while One A Day Weight Smart does not. Both experimental groups received OTC herbal supplements containing caffeine. However, the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free group received a much large daily dose of caffeine. Each One A Day Weight Smart tablet contained 15 mg of caffeine powder and each rat received one pill per week. On the other hand, each Stacker 2 Ephedra Free capsule contained 200 mg of caffeine plus the unknown additional amount of caffeine in the Kola nut seeds. In addition, each rat in this group received 3 capsules per week. Consequently, the One A Day Weight Smart group of rats received a markedly smaller dose of caffeine than the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free group. Research has shown that the thermogenic, and hence weight loss, effects of caffeine are dose dependent (Astrup 1990; Denaro 1991). Therefore, based on this data, it appears that One A Day Weight Smart tablets may contain an insufficient dose of caffeine to promote thermogenesis and weight loss, but that Stacker 2 Ephedra Free may contain sufficient caffeine to promote weight loss. In addition to caffeine, the One A Day Weight Smart group received ECGC ECGC Export Credit and Guarantee Corporation of India Ltd. . Again, research has shown that use of this substance increases thermogenesis and weight loss (Dulloo 2000; Chantre 2002; Murase 2002; Zheng 2004). However, it was noted that in each of these studies, the subjects received a much greater dose of ECGC than that provided by the One A Day Weight Smart tablet. Again, this supports the conclusion that One a Day Weight Smart tablets deliver an insufficient amount of ECGC, as well as caffeine, to promote weight loss. Because the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free group of rats received a supplement containing a larger amount of caffeine and gained less weight, it was anticipated that this group of rats would exhibit a higher metabolic rate than the other groups. However, these data failed to show any difference in the metabolic rate between the different treatment groups. There are several possible explanations. First, Stacker 2 Ephedra Free may have produced weight loss through some other mechanism, such as by suppressing appetite, rather than by stimulating metabolic rate. Second, some other ingredient in the Stacker 2 Ephedra Free "proprietary blend" other than the caffeine or kola nut was responsible for the rats' lower weight gain. Finally, it is possible that caffeine and kola nut were the active ingredients, but the experiment failed to detect their impact on metabolic rate. Research indicates that the thermogenic effects of caffeine last only about two hours (Astrup 1990; Denaro 1991; Koot 1995). Rats that had eaten shortly before having their metabolic rate measured would have a higher metabolic rate. Suggestions for future experiments are two-fold. First, to further investigate Stacker 2 Ephedra Free, it would be interesting to determine if it produced in increase in metabolic rate within two hours of its ingestion ingestion /in·ges·tion/ (-chun) the taking of food, drugs, etc., into the body by mouth. in·ges·tion n. 1. The act of taking food and drink into the body by the mouth. 2. . It would also be interesting to compare the effects of Stacker 2 in its commercially prepared form to the effects of its individual components. This would be somewhat problematic since some of the ingredients are not identified. But, certainly caffeine and kola nut seeds could be used as controls. Second, future studies could include human experiments, more long-term study (up to three months of supplement usage), and combining supplement use with an exercise regime. 5. Literature Cited Acheson KJ, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Pittet P, Anantharaman K, Jequier E. 1980. 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Inhibitory effect of six green tea catechins and caffeine on the growth of four selected human tumor cell lines. Anticancer Drugs Anticancer Drugs Definition Anticancer, or antineoplastic, drugs are used to treat malignancies, or cancerous growths. Drug therapy may be used alone, or in combination with other treatments such as surgery or radiation therapy. 7: 461-468. Yang CS, Wang ZY. 1993. Tea and cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 85: 1038-1049. Yen GC, Chen HY, Peng HH. 1997. Antioxidant and pro-oxidant effects of various tea extract. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 45: 30-34. Zhang Y, Wells J. 1990. The effects of chronic caffeine administration on peripheral adenosine receptors. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 254: 757. Zheng G, Sayama K, Okubo T, Juneja LR, Oguni I. 2004. Anti-obesity effects of three major components of green tea, catechins, caffeine, and theanine, in mice. In Vivo 18: 55-62. Suzanne S. Frucht, Christie Cox, David Johnson, Megan Moore, Debra Mosher A mosher is a person who is crossed between goth/punk/skater they have long hair and listen to music like slipknot and metal music. Some people call them headbangers. At certain music shows they have something called a mosh pit, basically its a fight pit with loads of people bashing each other. , Megan Peterson, Angela Posten Department of Biological Sciences, Northwest Missouri State University Northwest Missouri State University is a state university in Maryville, Missouri. Founded in 1905 as a teachers college, it is primarily a liberal arts college offering undergraduate and graduate classes. , Maryville, MO 64468
Table 1. Weekly mean mass of each group of rats.
Mean Mass (g) [Standard deviation]
Date of Measurement
11/11/04 11/18/04 11/25/04
Treatment
Control 158.34 [6.3] 178.15 [8.3] 190.65 [1.3]
One A Day 163.08 [5.9] 180.07 [7.4] 197.28 [8.3]
Stacker 2 163.41 [9.3] 179.85 [14.1] 194.16 [15.1]
Mean Mass (g) [Standard deviation]
Date of Measurement
12/2/04 12/9/04
Treatment
Control 200.95 [11.6] 209.26 [12.9]
One A Day 205.69 [8.2] 209.13 [8.8]
Stacker 2 200.99 [13.8] 201.85 [12.9]
Table 2. Weekly mean metabolic of each group of rats.
Mean Metabolic Rate (kcal/hr/
[m.sup.2]) [Standard deviation]
Measurement Date
11/11/04 11/18/04 11/25/04
Treatment
Control 49.57 [7.4] 49.71 [4.3] 49.02 [5.3]
One A Day 68.21 [19.2] 57.96 [13.0] 44.94 [3.9]
Stacker 2 63.32 [14.0] 57.45 [7.1] 65.21 [11.0]
Mean Metabolic Rate (kcal/hr/
[m.sup.2]) [Standard deviation]
Measurement Date
12/2/04 12/9/04
Treatment
Control 57.37 [6.9] 47.03 [7.01
One A Day 57.95 [11.7] 48.17 [8.2]
Stacker 2 58.18 [8.9] 57.09 [5.4]
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