The critical literacy process: guidelines for examining books.

The power of literature to affect the lives of young children is awesome and far-reaching. Reading or story time is a highly regarded practice in many classrooms, homes, and libraries. The vast majority of early childhood and elementary settings provide daily opportunities for children to read or independently look at books. As most works of children's literature are written by adults, they serve as a form of education and socialization that conveys society's deepest hopes, fears, expectations, and demands (Apol, 1998). Therefore, children's literature presents children with society's overt and covert values and often explains and justifies what is generally considered appropriate patterns of behaviors and beliefs.

This article encourages children, teachers, and parents to critically read these books--even young children can be taught to become critical readers. They can learn to identify and clarify ideological perspectives in books--not necessarily to evaluate, discredit, or applaud a writer's ideology, but simply to see it for what it is (Apol, 1998).

This article deconstructs the misconception that the messages in children's books are simple, neutral, and inherently good. Books are open to multiple perspectives (Apple, 1992), depending on the reader's experience. One person may love a book that others find offensive.

The Power of Books and the Importance of Critical Literacy 

The recognition that no work, even the simplest book for children, is without some ideological freight is one of the most useful insights of modern literary criticism (Apol, 1998; Hunt, 1992; Klein, 1985; Kohl, 1995). In children's literature, where there is a very obvious power relationship between the author and the reader, the author's ideology is particularly important. When selecting what goes into a work and what is excluded, authors of children's books are inevitably influenced by their personal perspectives and assumptions (Harris, 1999). The author's ideologies (whether conscious or unconscious, overt or covert) are reflected in the plot and characters, the nature of conflicts and their resolutions, and the casting and depicting of heroes and villains. The manner in which the author chooses to evoke readers' emotional responses, elicit their judgments, illustrate key themes, and direct selected morals is also a result of the author's ideology (Hunt, 1992).

When thinking about literacy as a critical process, a key question to consider is how literature can be used to help children see beyond their own perspectives. Critical literacy promotes numerous readings on a topic from different perspectives. In addition, children can ask questions, take risks, and act, rather than passively accepting what the teacher or the readings state (Marxen, 2002).

Without a doubt, people read books according to their own class, race, gender, and religious experiences (Apple, 1992). Through schooling, however, children learn to suppress these influences and respond to books in a limited and scripted manner. Furthermore, many readers have learned to rely passively on authoritative interpretations of literature.

Apple (1992) described three common responses to books: dominant, negotiated, and oppositional:

In the dominant reading of a text, one accepts the messages at face value. In a negotiated response, the reader may dispute a particular claim, but accept the overall tendencies or interpretations of a text. Finally, an oppositional response rejects these dominant tendencies and interpretations. The reader "repositions" herself or himself in relation to the text and takes on the position of the oppressed. These are, of course, no more than ideal types and many responses will be a contradictory combination of all three. (p. 10)

Engaging oneself in a conversation with the book's ideas, and being open to critically question and extend ideologies, makes reading a much more exciting and vibrant process. To involve children in such a critical literacy process requires educators to provide them with a thoughtful collection of books covering a wide range of topics (Boutte, 1999). Table 1 presents suggestions for criteria to use when selecting a well-rounded literature collection. Even very young children (even as young as 3 years old) are able to participate in discussions about books (Apol, 1998; Marxen, 2002). Table 2 presents strategies for encouraging critical discussions of books. Such discussions may begin by asking children to share the points that resonated with them, and then may progress to discussions about points of view related to gender, class, race, or religion.

Critically Examining Biases in Children's Books

For adults, discussing biases in books may be difficult, because many of their favorite books from childhood contain biases. However, the intention behind engaging in a critical process is not to remove favorite books from our collections. Rather, it is to examine books (even old-time favorites) with new eyes while still enjoying them. Herbert Kohl's (1995) provocative book Should We Burn Babar? reexamines many classics; for example, he exposes some of the messages about colonization found in Babar, comments on the sexism in Pinocchio, and discusses the failure by most stories written for children about Rosa Parks to acknowledge the collective struggle of African Americans. Despite these flaws, Kohl does not recommend censoring the books. Since it is virtually impossible to ensure that children will not be influenced by books that do not respect the dignity of all humans, it is vital for teachers, media specialists, and parents to be able to recognize the author's ideology, stereotypes, and biases in books, and then teach children how to do the same. The first step is to examine the underlying ideologies of commonly used children's books so that educators and parents can be made aware of some of the possible stereotypes.

When we examine literature from within the broader context of school, it becomes apparent that "the norms, values, culture, and history presented to children in schools embod[y] the norms, values, culture, and history of the dominant social classes" (Taxel, 1984, p. 9). Consequently, without a conscious effort, educators will inadvertently contribute to the legitimatization and reproduction of the existing, unequal social order (Freire, 1970/1999; Taxel, 1984). The realization that educators might unwittingly contribute to oppression or marginalization of people based on race, class, gender, or other differences is not easily digested. Yet, this is indeed possible absent a willingness to read critically and teach students to do likewise. Readers may find this realization more palatable if they distinguish between institutional discrimination (unintentionally contributing to a system of discrimination that favors those of certain races or socioeconomic classes, for example) versus individual discrimination (intentionally committing a racist, sexist, classist, etc. act).

As books' pivotal role in the socialization of young children becomes more generally acknowledged, their representations of people of color and women have come under closer scrutiny--particularly since the civil rights movement (Harris, 1999; Kohl, 1995; Pinsent, 1997). A major limitation of many commonly read children's books is the negative or absent representation of females, people of color, non-Christian and non-Western religions, people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, and people with disabilities (Boutte, 1999). The effects of such books are rarely immediate and the cumulative effect of repeated exposure over long periods of time is not readily apparent or easy to discern. Favorite books are particularly influential, since they are read regularly (Shannon, 1986). When children read literature uncritically, there is always the possibility that they will form stereotypes and biased attitudes that will carry into adulthood (Kohl, 1995).

A 1991 examination of children's literature by Sims Bishop revealed that of the 5,000 children's books published in 1990, an overwhelming number featured central characters who were males and who had a disproportionate number of positive characteristics attributed to them. In addition, only one percent was written by African Americans.

Pace (1992) examined five American literature anthologies commonly used on the high school level. Having compiled a list of authors whose names appeared in at least three of the books, Pace found that it was not ethnically diverse. Of 96 authors on the list, there were 65 white males, 16 white females, 10 African American women, two Native Americans (gender not given), and one Latino American (gender not given). Broken down by genre, most of the women represented were poets. Only one short story was written by an African American, and no works by women were included in the essay section. While not devaluing any literary form, Pace notes that high school literature/ English anthologies often place poetry near the end of the text. Even the most well-intentioned teacher is typically unable to reach that section of the text by the end of the year, and so works by women are likely to be excluded.

The proposal to add multicultural literature to the curriculum has not been without contention. Hirsch (1987) suggested that every American student needs to read a common set of literary "classics" in order to be considered "culturally literate." Critics have charged that Hirsch's list is limited by the fact that it is primarily Anglocentric, male, and elitist, and they argue that all books should be read for understanding (versus memorization of facts) and none should be exempt from critical examination (Kohl, 1995; O'Neil, 1988). Another objection to Hirsch's recommendations focuses on the implication that any one person or group can select required content in a society as culturally diverse as the United States.

While proponents of Hirsch's perspective generally acknowledge the multicultural limitations of many of the "great books," they contend that they were not harmed by having read them. Even if that is true, it does not legitimize limiting children who live in a radically different kind of society to a monocultural literary canon (Kohl, 1995; Pinsent, 1997). Multicultural literacy is preferable to "cultural literacy," which suggests that knowledge should be selected, defined, and constructed by elite groups within society (Banks, 1991). Such a stance is undemocratic, since it excludes the perspectives of different ethnic groups and people from lower socioeconomic strata. Despite rhetoric about how Western tradition is threatened by the influx of women and minority writers into the curriculum, the reality is that the concepts, paradigms, and content of the curriculum in the largest schools and universities in the United States are largely Western (Banks, 1991/ 1992). Presently, Western traditionalists hold the balance of power and financial resources, as well as top positions in mass media, schools, colleges and universities, government, and in the publishing industry (Banks, 1991 / 1992). Banks points out how Eurocentric concepts such as the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are still used to organize the majority of the units in history, literature, and the arts. Furthermore, when the cultures of people of color are incorporated into the curriculum, they typically are viewed within the context of European concepts and paradigms. By contrast, a multicultural perspective values non-Western traditions equally, and views them from the perspectives of non-Europeans. This approach does not diminish Western tradition; however, it does not make it superior to that of other cultures (Boutte, 1999).

Presenting primarily Eurocentric literature gives children only one perspective of the world, which may lead them to hold misconceptions about other cultures, and possibly result in prejudice and stereotypes. Pearse (1989) suggested that "it is the lack of positive images, the lack of discussion, and the lack of multiethnic perspectives, which need to be redressed" (p. 273). To counteract these problems, the curriculum must include a critical perspective whereby students learn there are multiple views on topics.

Because of the potential of children's books to inadvertently contribute to the formation of stereotypes, biases, and discrimination, several concerned groups have established guidelines for selecting and evaluating children's literature (e.g., Institute of Race Relations, Children's Rights Workshop, Council on Interracial Books for Children, World Council of Churches, National Association for the Education of Young Children) (Boutte, 1999; Pinsent, 1997). As a result of these guidelines, many of the offensive and abhorrent racist and sexist caricatures and stereotypes are absent from most contemporary books; however, newer, more subtle stereotypes and representations have emerged (Harris, 1999; Taxel, 1997), and so critical literacy remains important.

Approximately 46 percent of schoolchildren in the United States are people of color (Banks & Banks, 1997); yet, African, Asian, Latino, and Native American peoples have generally been negatively portrayed, if at all, in school materials (Boutte, 1999; Medicine, 1988; Spencer & Markstrom-Adams, 1990). The curriculum remains narrow and without a plurality of voices or ideologies in literature collections (O'Neil, 1988; Pinsent, 1997). Since children's literature is a vehicle for education and a repository for cultural values, its assumptions, ideologies, and biases must be continuously examined and interrogated to ensure that it contributes to democratic values. If educators and parents are to make intelligent and informed choices about what children read, or what is read to them, they must first learn to look beyond the surface of books and become aware of books' implicit and explicit agendas. Yet, children's books are often not critically examined by teachers for content (Apol, 1998; Boutte, 1999; Kohl 1995; Pinsent, 1997). The intent should not be to avoid books because of their ideological stances, but rather to become aware of the ideologies, be critical consumers of books, and teach children to think about what they are reading or hearing. The potential effects of presenting and glorifying limited perspectives are well documented (Apple, 1992; Boutte, 1999; Freire, 1970/1999); the cumulative effect may be the development of discriminatory attitudes and actions. Critical literacy must become an educational imperative in a diverse and democratic society and world.

Encouraging critical literacy is a complex process; therefore, new teachers seeking to infuse multicultural literature into their classrooms must be careful to avoid trivializing and misusing the works of underrepresented groups (Fang, Fu, & Lamme, 1999). One straightforward strategy for getting started is to create a balanced collection of books (see Table 1). In addition, it is essential to remember that no one book will provide a complete view or comprehensive coverage of an issue. Laura Apol's (1998) fascinating discussion of two books on slavery illustrates this point. One book, written by a white author, intended to give a "factual" account of slavery by providing "nonemotional, objective" information about the atrocious institution. The story is told from the perspective of a plantation owner and emphasizes the economic feasibility of slavery, thus glossing over the oppressive and punitive treatment of slaves. That book's author uses pictures of artifacts, maps, actual bills of sale, etc. to emphasize certain points. The other book, written by an African American man, gave readers insight into the pain and horror of slavery. The author tells the story from the perspective of the slaves, emphasizing slavery's inhumanity and injustices. Graphic paintings of slaves being beaten and carried away by ship from their homeland, as well as other images, are used to evoke an emotional reaction from the reader. The author challenges readers to ask themselves how they would feel in a similar situation. Initially, Apol was drawn to the second, personalized account, but later concludes that both stories complement each other by providing two distinctly different perspectives.

Apol provides 10 (multi-part) questions that are useful for readers seeking to identify the ideologies in the two books she studied. Readers may find other guidelines about avoiding biased literature useful as well (see Derman-Sparks and the ABC Task Force, 1989; Sadker, Sadker, & Long, 1993). Consulting a variety of sources is useful; however, they are only guidelines and should be used accordingly (rather than as a strict evaluation of the books). Equally important is how children process and respond to a particular book. Finally, we do not want to lose sight that adults mediate the meanings of books through their comments (or lack thereof) and their enthusiasm and interest (versus obligatory, lifeless, or disrespectful presentations).

Conclusion

Educating children is an awesome and enormous task that requires thoughtfulness (Ayers, 1995). The selection and presentation of children's literature is only one aspect of the school experience, but it is one that has a tremendous impact on children's lives. Many biases that we hold may have been influenced by the accumulation of subtle messages in books and the media. In explaining the complexity surrounding children's literature, the author hopes that the reader will not be so overwhelmed that enjoyment of books is compromised. At the same time, the content in books cannot be separated from their authors, who are telling their own versions of events (Whitin & Whitin, 1998). "One of the ways that learners can appreciate multiple perspectives is to understand that information can change in different contexts" (Whitin & Whitin, 1998, p. 125). As books are expressions of ideas, dialogues between authors and readers are possible and enjoyable. Since children's books contribute to the formation of culture or even transform the way that people view and relate to the world (Kohl, 1995), a close examination of the content, assumptions, and ideologies, both overt and covert, of popular children's literature is imperative.

Table 1

TYPES OF BOOKS FOR
MULTICULTURAL COLLECTIONS

1. Books representing various ethnic groups (African, Asian, biracial,
European, Latino, and Native American), religious groups, both genders,
different socioeconomic levels, individuals with disabilities,
different age groups, various lifestyles, differing family structures

2. Books that present both historical viewpoints (e.g., folktales,
biographies) and contemporary depictions of people from different
ethnic groups (avoid presenting only historical books about Native
Americans, for example; also use contemporary books)

3. Books describing holidays from many different cultural traditions
(e.g., Passover, Easter, Three Kings Day, Kwanza)

4. Fairy tales from different cultures (e.g., Africancentric, Asian,
Latino); compare some of the many different versions of Cinderella
available, for example

5. Books depicting males and females in nontraditional roles

6. Books that show people from different cultures working together, and
that emphasize people's similarities and differences

7. Multicultural books from various disciplines (e.g., art, music,
science, math)

8. Books written in different dialects and languages.

Source: Boutte, G. (1999). Multicultural education: Raising
consciousness. Atlanta, GA: Wadsworth.
Table 2

GUIDELINES FOR CRITICAL
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT BOOKS

1. Continuously develop your collection of books or routinely check
out books that cover a wide range of genres, authors, lifestyles, and
voices. Books depicting multiple and contradictory perspectives should
be included (e.g., include both positive and non-favorable characters
from the same gender, ethnicity, religion, class). The goal is to avoid
simplistic dichotomies of "good" and "bad" and monolithic depictions of
any culture, race, gender, religion, or class.

2. Have available books that represent the children's experiences, as
well as ones that broaden their experiences.

3. Read books more than once. From time to time, revisit books that
have not been read in a while. This gives children a chance to
reconsider earlier positions and to deepen their understandings.

4. Encourage children to think critically about books. They may accept,
modify, or resist the author's message and ideology.

5. Form literature circles, or discussions about books, using small
groups.

a. Ask children to relate what they thought about the book. Probe for
their likes as well as dislikes--children need to know that it is
acceptable to disagree with a book's message.

b. Over time, encourage children to take different roles during the
discussion of books (Susi Long, personal communication, University of
South Carolina, spring 1999). For example, children can make
connections between the book and their own lives. They can draw
pictures or write about something that the story brought to mind.

c. Read two or three versions of the same story, and discuss
similarities and differences.

d. Study a particular author or illustrator, such as Eric Carle or
Faith Ringgold. Compare and contrast the styles used in different
books. What inferences can be made about the author?

e. Examine books from the same theme (e.g., African American hair).
Discuss common themes. Look for and discuss new words.

f. Compare and contrast books from the same genre (e.g., alphabet
books). Explore why children find some books more engaging than
others.

6. Make mental or written notes about the nature of comments that
you tend to make when reading books. Ask yourself how you respond
to the story lines, characters, illustrations, etc. Focus on how
you mediate children's understandings to help them see the point
that you think is important to make, and on how children's responses
are thus influenced. How do your preferences influence children's
perspectives?

7. Share things that you are reading with children so that they view
you as a fellow reader.
Table 3

TYPES OF BIASES IN BOOKS

Linguistic bias: culturally loaded terms ("black sheep," "jew down");
sexist language ("fireman" instead of "firefighter," for example)

Stereotyping: examine the story lines and illustrations (ethnic,
gender, socioeconomic status, religion, other)

Invisibility: systematic exclusion of races, socioeconomic statuses,
etc.

Imbalance: presenting only one group of people

Unreality: glossing over, or unrealistically portraying, controversial
issues (slavery, discrimination, prejudice)

Fragmentation: presenting information as unique occurrences, rather
than integrating them within the text.

Source: Sadker, M., Sadker, D., & Long, L. (1993). Gender and
educational equality. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.),
Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 111-128).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

References

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Whitin, D. J., & Whitin, P. (1998). Learning is born of doubting: Cultivating a skeptical stance. Language Arts, 76(2), 123-129.

Gloria Swindler Boutte is Associate Professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of North Carolina, Greensboro.