The class of '43 at CIT: a case study of adult creative productivity.

A case study of 89 California Institute of Technology men who graduated in 1943 revealed a remarkable portrait of highly productive, gifted individuals who contributed greatly to their respective scientific fields, maintained stable and satisfying family lives, contributed to and participated in their own communities through a variety of civic activities, pursued avocations and interests in considerable depth, and found highly creative means for expressing their individuality. The Caltech graduates tended to exhibit creative productivity, and fewer focused on academically-oriented careers than found in other gifted samples. High levels of postgraduate education, civic participation, professional awards, honors, and memberships, and stable family patterns (length of marriage, numbers of children) characterized this sample of gifted scientists. Based on Feldman's (1980) developmental theory of creative productivity, it was hypothesized that the levels of creativity among members of the group may have been influenced by the dynamics of the specific scientific fields into which these Caltech graduates entered during the half century under study.

My father graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Civil Engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1943. It was an auspicious year in many ways -- birth of a first child (me), commission as a Lt. J.G. in the U.S. Navy preparing to enter World War II, and graduation from a highly respectable institution of learning. Caltech had every bit the same high reputation it holds today, vying for top national honors in science research and scholarship with Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Carnegie Mellon. Even 50 years ago, Caltech was highly selective: only the most brilliant scientific minds need apply.

On May 13, 1993, the Class of 1943 held its fiftieth reunion. One of the longer-lasting remembrances of that celebration was the publication of a yearbook, complete with snapshots of each male graduate as he now looks. About a year later I happened to be visiting my father and came upon this treasure of data about the lives of this remarkable class of highly gifted and productive senior citizens. Just as with the Terman study subjects, from whom data have been collected since 1921, this cohort of remarkable individuals presented a picture of marital stability, citizenship (local, national, and global), job success, active community leadership, and general productivity. Of interest, however, was whether this sample of highly gifted individuals differed from other high IQ and gifted scientist samples, which have tended to produce well in traditional and academic career paths (Oden, 1968; Roe, 1951; 1953; Shurkin, 1992; Terman & Oden, 1947; 1959). Admission to Caltech, even as far back as 1939, required a multidimensional approach using a variety of formal and informal instruments to determine potential ability, high performance, indications of high interest, perseverence, and motivation, potential to succeed in a rigorous training program, and uniqueness of personality. The men who chose to attend were serious students, in love with science and mathematics (they had to take four separate entrance exams in these areas in order to qualify), who deliberately chose an all-men's school to "avoid distractions," as my father has related. The focus of this descriptive study, then, was to determine if this multidimensional approach, combined with the rigorous requirements of a technical education, may have had an impact on the creative productivity of this class of students over the course of their lives.

Creativity has been variously defined as: a set of traits or personal dispositions (e.g., Amabile, 1983, 1989; Guilford, 1950, 1967, 1987; Jackson & Messick, 1965; MacKinnon, 1961, 1978; Piirto, 1992; Roe, 1951, 1953; Wallach & Kogan, 1965); a process (e.g., Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1975;; Koestler, 1964; Sternberg, 1988; Torrance, 1974; Wallas, 1926); the qualities of products or performances (e.g., Besemer & Treffinger, 1981; Feldman, 1980; MacKinnon, 1987; Perkins, 1981); or some interaction among these three sets of elements (e.g., Barron, 1988; Gruber & Davis, 1988; Isaksen, 1987; Rogers, 1994).

But what is it that makes someone's effort creative? Various definitions have been applied, all of which lead back to producing something that has not been considered previously, something (idea, product, performance) that is unique, that transforms general thinking in its field. Creative productivity requires, according to Feldman (1980), a unique juxtaposition of the person's mastery of the domain of knowledge in which creativity will be elicited, the person's ability to think beyond the current limits of that domain, and the perseverence and willingness/proclivity to take intellectual risks to produce something new and transformational within a community or context that is amenable to the transformational idea or product. If any of these elements is missing, then creative production will probably not happen. Creative productivity is also the stuff of genius, according to Robert Albert (1975); such transformations are continuous throughout the producer's life and accumulate to a large body of life work. In the domains of mathematics and science, Freud, Darwin, Newton, Einstein, Edison, and Wiener can be considered creative producers by these definitions, but one-time creative producers such as James Watson might not.

The research questions underlying this descriptive case study of Caltech graduates, then, were: To what extent have the Caltech Graduates of the Class of 1943 been creatively productive? And, what factors in their lives may have accounted for this creative productivity?

Method

Sample, Instrumentation, and Procedure

The subjects of this study were the 89 respondents who completed the questionnaire sent by the Caltech Alumni Association before the fiftieth reunion of the class of 1943. At the time of graduation there were 120 men, of whom approximately 20 have died in recent years. The response rate to the questionnaire, therefore, was conservatively calculated as 90% of those alumni still living. The returned questionnaires were duplicated as a yearbook, mailed to each living graduate of that class. Each yearbook entry contained the family background (wife, children, grandchildren), career highlights, civic/volunteer/military activities, professional/business/civic organizations, honors or offices held, directorships/trusteeships held, publications, hobbies/sports, interesting trips, and interesting things or unusual happenings. The responses for each entry category were tallied and patterns of response were analyzed.

There is little reason to think that non-respondents to this questionnaire/yearbook would differ in their responses to it. First, several non-respondents had replied to earlier reunion questionnaires. And secondly, the questionnaire itself was explained as a chance to "communicate with fellow classmates." It is more likely that non-respondents had either expired or were ill, traveling, or so busy in their employment that response had a lower priority for them. One can't totally rule out, however, that non-respondents might have chosen not to respond because they did not feel positively about their life courses. Hence, we cannot conclude with absolute certainty that the patterns described in this article apply to 100% of the graduates.

Results

Creative Productivity Element 1: Mastery of a Domain of Knowledge

Much of the data about this cohort's mastery of a domain of knowledge comes from analyses of their educational degrees and the kinds of careers into which these men entered and subsequently rose. Table 1 summarizes the number and percentages of men in the various occupational fields represented. Of the 17 alumni (20%) who acquired either Medical Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy degrees, only four did not list a wide publication and patent history; several had written major books in their field of specialization. The proximity of Rand Corporation, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Standard Oil, and the major aircraft design industry to Caltech may have contributed as a fortunate coincidence to the fields in which these cohort members asserted their mastery.

Frequencies and Percentages of Occupations Among Graduates by
Terminal Degrees Held

Occupation                       B.A. Degree     M.A. Degree
                                  n       %       n      %

Academia                          -       -       -      -
R&D lab, "think tank"             -       -       -      -
Aerospace                         9      25       5     14
Petroleum                         5      14       7     19
Company Owner                     5      14       8     22
Civil Engineering/Service         3       8       4     11
Food/Chemical Industry            -       -       4     11
Meteorology/Geological            3       8       2      5
Military                          2       5       3      8
Teaching                          -       -       3      8
Electronics                       3       8       -      -
Writing                           2       5       -      -
Telecommunications                2       5       -      -
Nuclear power                     1       2       -      -
TOTALS                           36      40      36     40

Occupation                       Ph.D. Degree      Total
                                   n       %      n      %
Academia                           4      25      4      5
R&D lab, "think tank"             11      64     11     12
Aerospace                          1       6     15     17
Petroleum                         -       -      12     13
Company Owner                     -       -      13     15
Civil Engineering/Service         -       -       7      8
Food/Chemical Industry            -       -       4      5
Meteorology/Geological            -       -       5      6
Military                          -       -       5      6
Teaching                          -       -       3      3
Electronics                       -       -       3      3
Writing                           -       -       2      2
Telecommunications                -       -       2      2
Nuclear power                     1       6       2      2
TOTALS                           17      20      89    100

Table 1

Forty percent of the cohort went on for graduate work, acquiring at least one Master's degree. Four alumni received two Master's degrees each. Six took Master's degrees in nontechnical areas, rather than continuing on in their undergraduate areas of specialization -- three in Business Administration, two in Public Administration, and one in English. Among this group, 17 had published multiple technical papers, with one respondent, respectively, listing 30 and 50 technical papers. Three had published textbooks and three held several patents.

Of the 36 (40%) who chose not to go beyond a Bachelor of Science degree from Cal Tech, 16 (44%) stayed with one organization for their entire working lives; an additional nine (23%) held two jobs (or made one career change during their working lives. Among the total group of bachelor degree holders, 10 had published technical papers, five of whom had published multiple papers. Two held several patents, and two had written non-technical books. Their professional involvement in organizations was widespread: only 10 did not list at least one such membership; furthermore, most had held official positions within these organizations (president, treasurer, etc.)

The majority of the class, even though most are retired at this point, remained in California or on the West Coast (n=59, 66%) and pursued their careers there. Arizona, Washington, and Texas represented the other states in which several graduates established their work lives and families.

Summary. Similar to other longitudinal studies of gifted cohorts, this group of men were more likely to pursue levels of education beyond the Bachelor's degree. Mastery of their domains of knowledge, however, does not appear to have been determined by their degrees alone: some of the most widely published and patented among the group did so with only the undergraduate degree. Correspondingly, the acquisition of advanced degrees did not automatically lead these men to careers in academia; learning "on the job" seemed to be the preferred course for domain mastery.

Creative Productivity Element 2: Thinking Beyond the Current Limits of a Domain

Evidence of this second element of creative productivity is derived from the records of publication, honors received, and the roles played within career and community. One is not honored unless there has been ample evidence of this kind of thinking, nor is one placed in cutting edge responsibilities without being able to think beyond the current parameters of a domain.

Among the work-related awards and honors received by the total group of 1943 classmates there were: Honorary fellowships/life memberships in scientific societies (n=21, 23%)

Service awards in scientific societies (n=11, 12%)

Who's Who in America (n=2, 2%)

University fellowships (n=4, 4%)

Honorary doctorates (n=5, 5%)

For those who were more specific about their roles and responsibilities, there was a general air of pride in their accomplishments of having made pioneering contributions to the telecommunications, aerospace, electrical/computing industries. They tended to view themselves as having experienced great change during their work years, of having been on the cutting edge of new developments, inventions, and processes. Most tended to be team players--that is, they tended to work for others, albeit in managerial or developmental roles, but many tended to be independent, owning their own companies or businesses. All expressed feelings of having contributed to the knowledge base in their respective fields, no matter whether self-employed or employed by others. If absolute numbers were to be placed on their productivity, this group of alumni gave to their professions and society at large (aggregate)(*):

* Years of employment - 3,509 years

* Patents - 50+

* Publications - 677+

* Books, textbooks - 21

* Professional Organization Officers/Fellows - 70

* Professional Organization Memberships - 195

* Presidents of Corporations or Companies - 32

* University faculty, part- or full-time - 11

And among the specific creative and scientific contributions of this group:

* Developed the applied theory of fission chain reaction systems

* Invented one-step conversion of fission to electric energy and neutral particle beam effects on ICBMs; formulated the "cavity reactor" theory

* Co-inventor of drug to control Parkinson's disease 

* Conceptual designer of Pioneers 6-11 spacecrafts

* Director/developer of only active electron accelerator operating in world today (Canada)

* Founded Bell System Center for Technical Education

* R&D on Tales Missile System

* Founder of three start-up companies

* Initiator of stereo Cinemascope in movie industry

* R&D on commercial video recorders

* R&D on nuclear-powered rocket propulsion 

* Lunar Module Descent Engine developer

* R&D nuclear power development

* R&D vacuum tube design

* R&D electromagnetism transmission

* Airport designer

* Director of THOR, VAFB, Saturn-Apollo launch programs

* Inventor-for-hire

* Founder of American Gyro Corp, Inertial Instruments Inc.

* R&D on liquid fuel rocket motors, high altitude pumps, gas turbine engines

* Designer in dynamics and Atlas autopilot systems

* Engineer for Ranger, Surveyor, Mariner, Voyager projects

* Started up Irving Oil Refinery

* Landsat data analyst, Titan missile developer

* Founder of INET Corporation

* R&D in hypervelocity, radiative heat transfer, aerodynamics, aircraft stability and control

* Military Advisor to NATO 

* R&D on cancer cell growth and regulation

* Chief of Controlled Fusion branch of Atomic Energy Commission (European)

* SAGE satellite control systems developer

* R&D non-persistent poison gases in jungle conditions

* R&D solar energy at Lawrence Berkeley Lab

* RAND Corporation "think tank" scholar for aircraft design, space missions

* R&D hypersonic air data probe, gas bearing gyro, tv/imaging guidance for Maverick missile, wave guidance for Wasp and Maverick missiles, radar targeting system for weather bombs

Summary. This group of 89 men appear to have been not only creatively productive but continuously productive over the course of their lives. Many meet Albert's (1975) behavioral definition of creative genius in every respect. Based on the examples given, it would seem that thinking beyond the established bounds of their disciplines did lead these individuals to extend the limits of their initial domain of interest. Their capacity to think beyond the confines of their respective domains of knowledge quite possibly led them to the responsibilities they undertook and in which they succeeded.

Creative Productivity Element 3: Willingness to take Risks in Producing Something New or Transformational

Both workplace and community provided the contexts in which this risk-taking was in evidence for many of the CIT cohort. In addition to the usual" hobbies one would expect, an unusually large percentage took up hobbies or avocations which involved some degree of physical risk: river rafting or boating (n=20); mountain climbing (n=11); plane flying (n=5); skin/scuba diving (n=3); and auto racing (n=3). A variety of physical or intellectual risks/challenges can be inferred from the in-depth pursuits of hobbies and avocations as seen in the list below:

Physical Risks

* climbed Chimbarazo in Ecuador (20,000') at age 67. Went up and back in one day - no oxygen

* has hiked the entire official border of Switzerland

* has flown self around the world, south over south pole and north over Africa and Europe and North Pole 

* has made 25 raft trips in North and South America 

* has "captained" sailboat charters in British Virgin Islands, British Columbia, Hawaii, and Maine

* explored the Svalbard archipelago (near North Pole)

Physical Challenges

* spends at least two nights a year with the homeless,

* went scuba diving on the Great Barrier Reef on his 70th birthday

* ran four marathons between 1970-1991; was National AAU Champion in the 55-59 age category in 1980

* has become the "Official" photographer for the Population Institute

* photographed all of Kenya's game parks

* studied the Mayan civilization in Yucatan

* has traveled the U.S. continuously for 14 years in RV

* traveled to 49 countries, including camel safari

* held World Record for 40#12 oz. albacore; participated in many international fishing tournaments; tagged and released several large Black Marlin in Australia, weighing approximately 800 pounds

* crossed the Atlantic Ocean 22 times

* has visited all 50 states

* hiked, backpacked until "legs and feet gave out" at age 70

* driver for Red Cross, transporting disabled and senior citizens

* traveled to 45 countries

Intellectual Risks or Challenges (depending on personal viewpoint!)

* sings with the Winifred Baker and San Francisco Civic Chorales

* plays regularly with Big Band and Dixieland groups

* is opera supernumerary ("spear carrier") for Chicago Lyric Opera

* does set design, technical design and management of amateur theater

* spent 6 weeks exploring art, food, wine of France and Italy

* learned French to join the French scuba diving club

* had long friendships with Ansel Adams, Wynn Bullock, Eliot Elisofon, George Stevens, and Robert Noyce 

* has attended all Olympic games, 1956-1991; wrote several books on track and field statistics

* founded Golf Safari tours, 1972-1992; takes one international golf tour a year

Producing something new or transformational has also been in evidence in the community lives of this cohort of gifted individuals. Their civic participation has been extensive and productive. Although most have taken on community commitments we might call enculturated or expected (for example, at least 10% were actively involved, respectively, in at least one of the following: church, Rotary/Lions/Elks, homeowners' associations, community planning/Chamber of Commerce activities, scouts, educational volunteers, museum volunteers), many have made major creative contributions to the places where they have lived. One, for example, founded a town; another designed and built a community park, while still another has continuously built homes for the economically disadvantaged. Among the aggregated transformational activities were:

* Active in environmental organizations (e.g., Sierra Club) - 10

* Active in welfare programs, criminal justice programs - 10

* Active performers in the arts - 8

* Active in charity work (homeless, Salvation Army) - 7

* Active in peace/global concerns - 5

* Active about population concerns - 3

* Volunteer activities with disaster organizations (Red Cross)-2

Summary: The civic contributions of this group have been extensive and productive. Many have made major contributions to the places where they have lived. This group of individuals has maintained multiple hobbies and interests, many of which were pursued in great depth. In general they have been mobile, physically active, and remarkably risk-taking in their pursuit of leisure.

Catalyzing Experiences

Gagne (1985; 1992) has proposed a theory of giftedness and talent which suggests that one's environmental catalysts control whether or not one's abilities (gifts) are ultimately transformed into high achievement/productivity (talent). There were many potential catalyzing experiences in the lives of these 89 graduates -- some seemingly superficial, some extremely powerful -- which may have helped to make them the creatively productive researchers or community leaders they ultimately became. Family has to be a part of the explanation -- a stabilizing, centering base from which they moved forward in their creativity. Reactions to the events of their period in history may be another explanation for the creative productivity found in this group. Likewise, very specific crystallizing experiences also may have played a role in how these men ultimately directed their creative energies.

Family. The family lives of this graduating class were remarkably stable and, it would appear, satisfying. First, more than a third included photos of their spouses and children for the yearbook entry, without even the suggestion for doing so given to them. They took great effort to name their wives, children, and grandchildren. Five, under the "career highlights" entry, listed the accomplishments of their spouses or children as well as their own. Two spent more space describing their family lives than they did their own work lives. Of the 89 respondents, 71 (80%) have stayed married to one person throughout their lives; five married relatively late, however. The average length of marriage for this group was 44 years, even with the late marriages. Fourteen (16%) have married a second time, due to divorce or widowerhood, with an average second marriage length of 13 years. One graduate never married and two divorced but have not remarried. The average number of children for the class of 1943 was 2.79 (very similar to Terman's mean), ranging from 0-6 among various individuals. The average number of grandchildren at this point was 2.90, with one subject reporting a great grandchild. One respondent sums up the sentiments of several when it came to talking about their lives and families: "Ole E. has a great wife and family. Life is good. In the various situations where involved, I always enjoyed my activity, was able to do some first time things, and was well compensated in pleasure, friendships and monetarily."

Reactions to Their Times. Although it was not necessarily their choice to do so, 57 (64%) of the 89 respondents served in World War II, and several also served in the Korean Action. Many spoke of these experiences with a serious reverence or pride. For most this would have been immediately after completing their degree at Caltech and before they had begun seriously establishing their career paths. That so many ended up in the aerospace industry or in research and development for defense systems may point to the powerful catalyst these wartime experiences may have been. Many mentioned the actual sights and experiences of World War II when asked the "most important" event that had happened to them in their lives. One respondent put it much more tersely: "I survived World War II!"

Specific Crystallizing Experiences. The words used by the respondents to describe these "most important" events in their lives were quite abbreviated for the context of a reunion yearbook, but the impact was clear. Further research must follow on what the actual impact of these events were. Some of these varied personal experiences included:

* Spent time in 1951 in Calcutta and have spent the rest of my life worrying about overpopulation and environmental degradation 

* Overnight with the homeless once or twice a year since 1989

* In Western Samoa, Tonga and Figi I drank Kava with the local chiefs from a common coconut shell cup

* I scored a gunnery exercise on a Japanese destroyer firing at targets towed by American planes on the morning of Dec. 7th, 1961. The Japanese officers reminded me that it was the 20th anniversary of Pearl Harbor 

* While camped at 12,000 feet on the west (back) side of Whitney, I saw a Russian rocket case enter the atmosphere from the north and "Roman candle" for 15 minutes

* Have witnessed (by own plane) the Floyd River and the Big Sioux River Floods

* Got stranded in Baja California, because of rain and floods when the bridges were washed out in 1993

* Visited Russia for three weeks on People to People program to help them develop as business people

* Live in award winning house designed by our architect son, David. The house was featured in world wide magazines and on tv (still running in a Sears-Kenmore commercial)

* Spent about a year looking at using the B-70 as a nuclear powered bomber Had to brief Pentagon about capability of Russia's BACKFIRE bomber

* My wife has been mayor, second woman mayor in history of A-, for three terms

* Participated in nuclear testing at Eniwetok and Amchitka

* Watched Kilauea volcano eruptions on two different occasions

* Participated in nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll 

* Traveled around the world for four weeks to support satellite launch

* Saw Yankee pitcher, Dave Reghetti pitch a no-hitter vs the Red Sox (mixed emotions)

* Made a hole-in-one in golf

* Saw Babe Ruth pitch 9-2 vs the Sox

* Took a train ride through China and Russia on Ancient Silk Road 

* Got and lost order for nuclear equipment just before and after the Shah's overthrow in Iran

* In WWII, I penetrated 5 Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico hurricanes

* I met a man on a small village street corner in Germany in 1964 who had witnessed my brother's death 19 years before

* During WWII while serving aboard the carrier, USS Intrepid and was a part of the "Second Battle of the Philippine Sea," considered the greatest naval battle of all times

* Have had my name on the moon 5 times, on Mars 2 times, and on 2 Voyager spacecraft that will be moving through space when Earth is gone!

Conclusions

Using Feldman's elements of creative productivity, this study has sought to answer the question of whether a cohort of individuals gifted in science were creatively productive. The conclusions are that this group has shown remarkable creativity in both their contributions to the workplace and to their communities. Cutting edge can be liberally and accurately applied to their work in nuclear energy, space exploration, and medical research, to name just a few domains. But the term can also be applied to some of the very unusual societal responsibilities this group has taken on -- from founding a town to understanding the issues of homelessness, population growth, crime and violence, and poverty. Across the group, mastery of their respective domains took place so that the possibility of going beyond the limits of those domains could occur. This cohort then demonstrated their capacity for going beyond domain limits as their careers moved toward research and development, exploration, design, and invention. This group did not stay safely in ivory towers, but stepped out into the world and made new things happen. In addition to the ability to do such thinking beyond given limits, the group as a whole also showed remarkable willingness to take both physical and intellectual risks and challenges -- to test limits - in all aspects of their lives. It is evident that the three sets of elements were present for creative productivity to flourish, although one cannot identify such a cause-effect relationship conclusively. For most in this group, a stable family, participation in war, and very specific crystallizing experiences may have provided the catalysts needed to allow the development of this creative productivity.

As one reviews the achievements of the Class of '43, one can argue that the group as a whole have been atypically creative when compared with group members of other longitudinal studies in giftedness. In most other respects, they resemble the "A Group" of the Terman Study (Oden, 1968), as well as the Hunter College Elementary School graduates studied by Subotnik, Karp, and Morgan (1989) and the Speyer School graduates studied by Harris (1990). All of these groups have had high educational attainments, professional or semi-professional occupations, excellent general and mental health/general adjustment, and most importantly, high levels of satisfaction in work, family and leisure.

In Creating Minds, Gardner (1993) describes the creative individual as one who regularly solves problems, fashions products, or defines new questions in a domain in a way initially considered novel but ultimately accepted as integral to that domain. This most certainly seems to be the story of these 89 Caltech graduates. Their rigorous educational training and mastery of their respective scientific domains prepared them to be on the leading edge of aerospace, geology, meteorology, and electronics throughout their work lives. Not only did they fashion the products that have helped the U. S. maintain its technological edge since the 1950's, but many were involved in the policy-making that led to societal acceptance of these products, ideas, and processes. These men were certainly products of their times and fed into the Zeitgeist of the past 50 years, but they may also have helped to fashion that same Zeitgeist.

Unlike the creative thinkers so thoroughly detailed by Gardner, however, this group made no Faustian bargains for eminence--that is, they did not give up a rounded personal existence to be famous. These graduates were intimately connected to their environment and developed fully as well-rounded, self-actualized human beings.

As we look at the remarkably productive and apparently satisfying lives of this small group of graduates from just one university, we can overlay several developmental theories in helping to describe the productivity of the group. As a whole, their yearbook entries expressed high levels of life satisfaction. The strong marriages and family lives of this sample can certainly account for much of this, but education and participation in ground-breaking discoveries in cutting edge industries (aerospace, communications, meteorology) may also have contributed to ultimate satisfaction. This group has traversed the hierarchy of needs described by Maslow (1968). Safety and physical needs have been accounted for with continuous and stable employment, belonging and love have been provided by stable family relationships, and the need to know has been pursued through higher education and on the job explorations to the cutting edge of their fields. Just as Maslow describes the peak experiences one might encounter as a self-actualized individual, so too the many members of this cohort described crystallizing experiences that might be described as either pivotal (helping them change their direction in thinking) or peak (representing the most satisfying experience).

As one views Erikson's (1959) developmental theory of the stages of human social development, one easily perceives that this group tended toward the positive integration of the age-related crises through which all humans progress to become the highly generative and integrative group these men are today. They were able to commit to others in friendship, family, and work affiliations from the beginning of their work lives (Intimacy stage). As their successes grew in middle age, they moved toward altruistic concerns, as witnessed by their professional and civic participation (Generativity stage). And in their later years, their strong beliefs in themselves and the value of their contributions to humankind were fully expressed by their responses (Integrity stage). The characteristics listed for the Integrity level apply almost unilaterally to the Class of 1943: clear perceptions of reality, acceptance of self and others, naturalness, problem-centeredness even when encouraged (by the questionnaire) to be ego-centered, autonomously-operating individuals, cognizant of peak experiences in their lives, a deep sense of identification and affection for humanity, profound interpersonal relations, discrimination between good and evil, lack of hostility, creativeness, and individuality (resistance to enculturation). This group of 89 men adhered to the cultural and societal expectations of their time, experienced a great deal of personal development and reward for their efforts, gave of themselves for the betterment of their society, yet all "did it their own way." One can't help but wonder if the elements present for this cohort -- excellence in scientific preparation, rigorous admissions and graduation standards, stability of home and family life, and living during a period in society when the Zeitgeist favored scientific endeavor and discipline -- might be the "stuff" of which creative productivity is made. One hopes further studies of other cohorts (women, ethnic groups, non-scientific institutions, etc.) will parallel the dynamic interplay of factors present for the subjects of this study, such that what truly leads to high level creative productivity can be fully understood.

(*) When no actual years of employment were provided, an assumption was made that the person worked from 1946-1986 (40 years). The general prototype was that most entered the War. Military service was not counted as "employment" unless it was a life career. When the respondent used the word, "several" or "various," this was calculated conservatively as 3. When the words, "many," "numerous," or "widely" were used, this was calculated as 5 publications. The total of 50 patents is probably very conservative. Many alumni worked for corporations or industries as researchers but would not have been allowed to hold personal patents for their inventions. In these cases, the patents were mentioned but not "counted" as personally held ones.

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Manuscript submitted July, 1997. Revision accepted March, 1998.