The Motivation to Move.

There are a number of ways in which people can be motivated. In addition, it is important to understand what motivation is in the context of sport and participation. Brasile, Kleiber, and Harnisch (1991) state that motivation is "a process through which persons take available resources -- time, talent, and energy -- and distribute them in a way they choose." This process is called the personal investment theory, and it incorporates a two-stage causal process.

The first stage involves the effects of external factors and their influence on how an individual perceives a particular situation. In the second stage, the individual undertakes a personal investment in the situation. The personal investment involves an inner drive, an impulse, or an intention an individual possesses as a reaction to external influences. The key question is, What motivates athletes to dedicate themselves to sport?

Everyone has different motives for participating in sports: enjoyment, physical fitness, social relationships, or goal attainment. As noted, there are two types of motivation that enable people to accomplish a particular goal or task. First, extrinsic motivation in sports participation comes from outside influences or people (Deci & Ryan, 1985). People are extrinsically motivated to gain compensation, social approval, or rewards.

Second, intrinsic motivation is an inherent characteristic that feeds off one's inner drive to accomplish a goal or objective. According to Seifriz, Duda, and Chi (1992), "focusing on a task for its own sake, having a sense of self-determination, and perceiving oneself as able to meet the demands of a task are all assumed to be fundamental to intrinsic motivation." The authors applied this concept to motivational effects on high-school basketball players. Results indicated that players were primarily motivated to participate in basketball to improve and potentially master their skills, not to compare their skills against those of other players.

The motivational climate evolved around a mastery-focused environment. Players were task-oriented because they were primarily concerned with personal improvement, trying their best, and experiencing maximum enjoyment while playing basketball.

Sir Ludwig Guttmann, founder and director of the National Spinal Injuries Center, developed a philosophy of sports participation among people with disabilities (Brasile et al., 1991). His philosophy and subsequent years of investigation have supported recreation as an excellent tool to rehabilitate and develop self-confidence, personal skills, physical ability, and determination to pursue other challenges in life (Nicholas & Fines, 1995; Taylor & McGruder, 1996; Whittaker, 1990).

Basketball has been a part of United States sports culture since the late 1800s. For paraplegic, post-polio, amputee, or mobility-impaired athletes, since its development as a rehabilitative method following World War II, it is the country's most popular wheelchair sport (Maddox, 1994). There are men's and women's divisions, an intercollegiate division, and a youth division within the National Wheelchair Basketball Association (Kennedy, Smith & Austin, 1991). The youth division was developed to provide support for adolescents who were learning the sport.

Getting the Wheels Rolling

With an increase in participation in wheelchair sports, it has become clear that adolescents with disabilities are motivated to remain healthy, competent, and socially active (Greenwood, Dzewaltowski & French, 1990; White & Duda, 1993). Research has supported the view that social support alleviates the effects of stress and reduces injuries (Martin & Mushett, 1996).

When comparing wheelchair sport participants and nonparticipants, those engaging in physical activities or sports have a positive well-being and higher vigor with lower tension, depression, anger, and confusion (Campbell, 1995; Campbell & Jones, 1994). These benefits are influenced by many factors. White and Duda (1993) suggest that success in wheelchair sports stemmed from a number of factors, including perseverance, overall health, and quality of equipment.

To better understand how athletes are motivated, a goal perspective theory is used as a contemporary social cognitive approach, suggesting that task and ego involvement are associated with how people define success and judge their competence (White & Duda, 1993). The personal investment theory encompasses three major categories: task, ego, and social incentives. These incentives are the primary factors used when researching motivation.

The first category is task incentives. Task incentives occur when a participant chooses to engage in an activity for enjoyment and personal reward. The participant is in total task absorption and pursues activities where each task's demands only slightly exceed the individual's capacity (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991). He or she is intrinsically motivated to participate for the purposes of improved competence, enjoyment, personal improvement, and mastery of a task (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Research by Brasile (1989) and Brasile et al. (1991) revealed that individuals participated in sports for intrinsic and task-oriented reasons, which means they were internally driven to accomplish performance goals rather than to win or compare themselves with others.

Ego incentives are derived when comparing one's abilities, actions, or competence to the performance of another individual or group (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991; Brasile et al., 1991; White & Duda, 1993). The results of the comparison assist in the development of social realities. In competitive situations, it becomes important to be more competent. However, ego involvement can result in a negative response in achievement because of a lack of confidence in one's ability (White & Duda, 1993). When an athlete's abilities do not compare favorably with those of another, adverse effects may occur. Adolescents with low perceived competence have a tendency to foster maladaptive behaviors such as cheating, giving up, or risking health for success. Often, the effects of comparison can alter one's thinking about one's self, abilities, competence, or health.

Social integration incentives are another important factor. Many enjoy sports for the companionship, social interaction, recognition, respect, and feeling of belonging (Brasile et al., 1991). These factors reinforce participation in sports and are often encouraged by friends, family, and health professionals. Martin and Mushett (1996) explain that social support alleviates the effects of stress and reduces injuries.

Fitness and health and social affective incentives are two other types of motivation that Brasile and Hedrick (1991) and Brasile et al. (1991) suggest as important factors in sports participation. People participate in sports to remain fit and healthy. They are motivated by their understanding of the harmful effects of a sedentary lifestyle and the positive effects of physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being (Axelson, 1996).

Another scope of motivation, social affective incentive focuses on the reintegration or socialization of an individual into society. Involvement in physical exercise gives an individual with or without a disability the means for escaping an aversive atmosphere in which he or she has been confined (Brasile et al., 1991). As related to sports, it is important to understand the personal feelings, dispositions, attitudes, or emotions an athlete experiences through cooperative social involvement.

A study by Brasile and Hedrick (1991) compared the participation incentives of adult and youth wheelchair basketball players. Task, ego, social integration, fitness and health, and social affective responses were analyzed. The top four responses of both youth and adult participants were team interaction, improving ability, testing against standards, and excitement. Adult and youth participants were similar in their perception of motivation participation. Intrinsic task-oriented activities were equally important for adults and youth, but ego and social integration were observed to be more important to youth. Youth responses included, "It gives me the opportunity to be with friends," It pleases others who are close to me," "It gives me a chance to use good equipment," and "It offers me the opportunity to be independent."

Benefits of Participation

Some 10,000 spinal cord injuries occur in the United States each year; 20 percent of these involve people under the age of 21 (Johnson & Klass, 1997). It is important for adolescents with disabilities to participate in sports or adventure programs. Many benefits -- improved physical fitness, social interaction, family cohesion, and risk taking -- are derived from participation in physical activities, all of which help improve self-esteem, quality of life, independence, and competence (Johnson & Klass, 1997; Smith, 1993). Axelson (1996) states that physical activity improves emotional and spiritual attributes, which include greater self-confidence and increased feelings of "inner peace."

In a study by White and Duda (1993), 59 athletes with physical disabilities completed a 13-item task and ego orientation in a sport questionnaire that was specific to wheelchair basketball. The results revealed two distinct goal-belief dimensions. First, success was the result of task orientation associated with practice, exerted effort, and external factors. Second, it was determined that ego-orientation leads to the belief that ability, chance, or taking an illegal advantage may result in accomplishment in sport. Therefore, it is important to note the advantages of supporting task-oriented approaches to sports.

Coaches, parents, peers, teachers, and players need to understand that task-oriented activities are beneficial because athletes are not focused on winning or comparing themselves to other athletes' abilities or skills. Even though it is important to incorporate task-oriented activities, it should be noted that taking an illegal advantage through drug doping or cheating needs to be eliminated from wheelchair athletics.

Participation in sports can lead to the development of athletic identity and sport orientation. Martin, Adams-Mushett, and Smith (1995) researched the development of adolescent swimmers with disabilities. The Athletic Identity measurement scale and the sport orientation questionnaire were applied to 27 female and 30 male youth swimmers with disabilities. The average age was 16.2 years. The adolescent swimmers reported a secure self and athletic identity, strong competitiveness and goal orientation, and a moderate to strong social identity. The results also indicated that some swimmers strongly identified sports as an indicator of social status or acceptance among peers, family, and people without disabilities.

Campbell and Jones (1994) studied the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants and nonparticipants. The participants demonstrated a positive well-being and higher vigor with lower levels of tension, depression, anger, and confusion. Also, greater levels of mastery and positive perceptions of heath and fitness were exhibited by sports participants. Nonparticipants often perceive their environment or situation as frustrating and stressful.

Brasile et al. (1991) researched the five participation motivation incentives among athletes with and without disabilities. At the time, there was little empirical evidence devoted to the value of understanding what motivates athletes with and without disabilities to participate in sports. Results indicated that there were more similarities than differences among those with and without disabilities in terms of incentives for participation in sport. It was discovered that task incentives and fitness were important to all athletes seriously involved in sports. Participants also reported ego incentives as important. Social integration and social affective incentives had less impact on participation motivation. Social integration incentives were more important for athletes with disabilities.

Hatfield (1998) investigated motivational incentives among collegiate athletes with and without disabilities. The participants completed a respondent information form and a participation reasons scale (Brasile et al., 1991). Participants in this study included division I and II athletes from seven universities. Of the 128 respondents, 37 were males without disabilities, 49 were females without disabilities, 37 were male wheelchair athletes, and five were female wheelchair athletes. The results showed that athletes with and without disabilities appeared to participate in collegiate sports for similar reasons. The only difference was found in the fitness incentives, which were higher for athletes with disabilities. Ego, task, social integration, and social affective incentives were similar.

In a recently completed study (Bartle, 1999), the motivation of male adolescent basketball players with and without disabilities to participate in sports was researched. Using an instrument developed by Brasile (1991), and used by Hatfield (1988), Bartle found that the only significant difference between the two groups was that the adolescents with disabilities placed more emphasis on the motivational force of social integration factors. Contrary to Hatfield's collegiate athletes, these adolescent wheelchair athletes rated fitness motivation lower than did basketball players without disabilities. However, mean scores for the factors of task- and ego-oriented incentives were the highest.

When it comes to socialization, adolescents with and without disabilities have similar views on social support and acceptance. Martin, Adams-Mushett, and Smith (1995) discovered that adolescent swimmers strongly identified their role in athletics as being the most important social role they filled. It is believed that youth, in general, need peer-group acceptance. This is often established when comparing one's abilities, competence, or status with another's (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991; Hellandsig, 1998).

These ego-oriented motives are especially significant among boys, who often determine status among peers by comparing themselves to others. When faced with competition, athletes with and without disabilities internalize their egos when having a negative experience. This could cause an individual to take an illegal advantage, develop a poor work ethic or negative behaviors, or discontinue sports (Hellandsig, 1998; Seifriz, Duda & Chi, 1992; Siegenthaler & Gonzalez, 1997; White & Duda, 1995).

It is apparent that task-oriented sport achievements are the main focus among athletes with and without disabilities. Martin et al. (1995) stated that the level of competition and importance of goals determines whether adolescents are concerned with personal achievement (winning, competence, skill development) or nonachievement goals (social interaction, having fun, learning skills). However, adolescents with disabilities also specifically attribute success to external factors such as equipment and the influence of the coach's expectations (White & Duda, 1993). It is legitimate that equipment is an important factor because the quality of equipment adds to the quickness and maneuverability of the individual who uses a sports wheelchair.

"During adolescence ... the need for group identification and social interaction is at its peak" (Johnson & Klaas, 1997). It is an important developmental time for independence, but an injury brings about regression to dependence. Therefore, it is essential to promote positive social integration and physical activity to alleviate any added pressures for social acceptance, and to avoid a passive lifestyle. Awareness of these issues is especially important for coaches, programmers, and parents of adolescents with disabilities.

Implications of Participation Motivation

Coaches, programmers, and parents should be aware that their athletes might be highly invested in sports (Martin et al., 1991). These researchers further explain that "expressing low performance expectations or patronizing attitudes toward performance potential can be psychologically and athletically harmful." But stressing ego-driven motives to the participating athletes could cause an adolescent to attempt to succeed (or avoid perceived failure) by taking an illegal advantage, having a poor work ethic, developing negative behaviors, or discontinuing sports (Hellandsig, 1998; Seifriz, Duda & Chi, 1992; Siegenthaler & Gonzalez, 1997; White & Duda, 1995).

Dichotomizing participants into either winners or losers can have harmful effects on future participation (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991), since ego-driven athletes are constantly comparing their competence and skills with other athletes. When the comparison is not equal, problems can occur.

Past research has proven that intrinsic task-related activities drive participation in sports for people with disabilities (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991; Brasile et al., 1991; Hellandsig, 1998; White & Duda, 1993). This reflects a dominant motivational factor, which is internally driven and emphasizes personal accomplishment relevant to performance goals (Brasile et al., 1991).

Therefore, coaches, programmers, and parents should emphasize instructional and participatory activities to enhance participation and continued involvement through challenging but attainable goals (Brasile & Hedrick, 1991; Martin et al., 1995). This allows all participants, regardless of abilities and skills, the opportunity to develop self-concept, feelings of accomplishment, and acceptance of disability by participating in activities (Johnson & Klaas, 1997).

Selected References

Axelson, P. 1996. "Benefits of Physical Activity for People With Spinal Cord Injuries."

Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development33: 7-8.

Brasile, F.M., and B.N. Hedrick. 1991. "A Comparison of Participation Incentives Between Adult and Youth Wheelchair Basketball Players." Palaestra (summer) 40-6.

Brasile, F.M., D.A. Kleiber, and D. Harnisch. 1991. "Analysis of Participation Incentives Among Athletes With and Without Disabilities." Therapeutic Recreation Journal 25 (1): 18-33.

Campbell, E. 1995. "Psychological Wellbeing of Participants in Wheelchair Sports: Comparison of Individuals With Congenital and Acquired Disabilities." Perceptual and Motor Skills 81: 563-68.

Campbell, E., and E. Jones. 1994. "Psychological Well-being in Wheelchair Sport Participants and Nonparticipants." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 11: 404-15.

Greenwood, C.M., D.A. Dzewaltowski, and R. French. 1990. "Self-efficacy and Psychological Well-being of Wheelchair Tennis Participants and Wheelchair Nontennis Participants." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 7: 12-21.

Hatfield, K.L. 1998. "A Study of Participation Incentives Among Collegiate Athletes With and Without a Disability" (master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale).

Hellandsig, E.T. 1998. "Motivational Predictors of High Performance and Discontinuation in Different Types of Sports Among Talented Teenage Athletes." International Journal of Sport Psychology 29: 27-44.

Johnson, K.A., and S.J. Klaas. 1997. "Recreation Issues and Trends in Pediatric Spinal Cord Injury." Top Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation 3 (2): 79-84.

Martin, J.J., C. Adams-Mushett, and K.L. Smith. 1995. "Athletic Identity and Sport Orientation of Adolescent Swimmers with Disabilities." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 12:113-23.

Martin, J.J., and C.A. Mushett. 1996. "Social Support Mechanisms Among Athletes with Disabilities." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 13: 74-83.

Seifriz, J.J., J.L. Duda, and L. Chi. 1992. "The Relationship of Perceived Motivational Climate to Intrinsic Motivation and Beliefs About Success in Basketball." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 14: 375-91.

Siegenthaler, K.L., and G.L. Gonzalez. 1997. "Youth Sports as Serious Leisure." Journal of Sport and Social Issues 21 (3): 298-314.

White, S.A., and J.L. Duda. 1993. "Dimensions of Goals and Beliefs Among Adolescent Athletes with Physical Disabilities." Adapted Physical Quarterly 10: 125-36.

Marjorie J. Malkin, Ed.D., CTRS is a professor of therapeutic recreation, and L. Patrick Bartle, M.S., is a graduate with a master's degree in therapeutic recreation, both at SIU at Carbondale.

Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale and Kim L. Siegenthaler, Ph.D. of Appalachian State University.