The Middle English preposition in: a semantic analysis (1).ABSTRACT This paper presents an analysis of in-prepositional phrases in Middle English Middle English Vernacular spoken and written in England c. 1100–1500, the descendant of Old English and the ancestor of Modern English. It can be divided into three periods: Early, Central, and Late. . On the semantic See semantics. See also Symantec. level, in-phrases were associated with a spatial or temporal Having to do with time. Contrast with "spatial," which deals with space. sense in Old English Old English: see type; English language; Anglo-Saxon literature. Old English or Anglo-Saxon Language spoken and written in England before AD 1100. It belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group of Germanic languages. . However, they lost much of their original referential meaning in Middle English as they developed from a spatial or temporal sense to a figurative fig·u·ra·tive adj. 1. a. Based on or making use of figures of speech; metaphorical: figurative language. b. Containing many figures of speech; ornate. 2. or abstract one. Unlike on-phrases, the survey of the texts available in the Helsinki Corpus of Middle English shows that the use of in-phrases has increased steadily and progressively throughout the Middle English period. The use of in-phrases to indicate a position on the surface of something and surrounded by its parts is highly represented in the corpus. Also on the surface of something which extends in all directions: heaven, hell, earth, world, sea, field, island, country predominate within the spatial roles (14.06% with regard to all in-phrases, and 42.14% within spatial sense). Unlike in Present Day English, the static location within the boundaries of space (building, house) or the meaning of "enclosed en·close also in·close tr.v. en·closed, en·clos·ing, en·clos·es 1. To surround on all sides; close in. 2. To fence in so as to prevent common use: enclosed the pasture. " in is not very common (7.06% with respect to all in-phrases, and 21.18% within the spatial sense). Unlike in the case of on-phrases, the data also evince e·vince tr.v. e·vinced, e·vinc·ing, e·vinc·es To show or demonstrate clearly; manifest: evince distaste by grimacing. that there is no significant usage of idiomatic id·i·o·mat·ic adj. 1. a. Peculiar to or characteristic of a given language. b. Characterized by proficient use of idiomatic expressions: a foreigner who speaks idiomatic English. in-phrases with a spatial reference. The number of temporal instances is very small as they only represent a rate of 5.15% with regard to all in-phrases found in the corpus. Our analysis also shows that a great number of in-phrases have acquired a figurative or abstract sense. Thus, nearly half of the in-phrases are used to express the role of a certain manner, state or condition (48.6% with regard to all in-phrases found in the corpus). ********** This paper presents an analysis of in-prepositional phrases (henceforth From this time forward. The term henceforth, when used in a legal document, statute, or other legal instrument, indicates that something will commence from the present time to the future, to the exclusion of the past. , in-Phs) in Middle English. It is based on the texts available in the Helsinki Corpus of Middle English (henceforth, HCME), and a quantitative approach is used. On the semantic level, in-Phs were associated with a spatial or temporal sense in Old English. However, many instances of in-Phs found in Middle English lost much of their original referential meaning in Middle English as they developed from a spatial or temporal sense to a figurative or abstract one. There are two contending theories about the semantic roles Noun 1. semantic role - (linguistics) the underlying relation that a constituent has with the main verb in a clause participant role linguistics - the scientific study of language of topological to·pol·o·gy n. pl. to·pol·o·gies 1. Topographic study of a given place, especially the history of a region as indicated by its topography. 2. prepositions (at, in, on) in Present Day English. Thus Bennet bennet excludes the devil; used on door frames. [Medieval Folklore: Boland, 56] See : Protection (1975:116) considers that the meaning (locative locative (lŏk`ətĭv) [Lat.,=placing], in the grammar of certain languages (e.g., Sanskrit), the case referring to location. Nouns in this case are often translatable into English phrases beginning with at, in, or on. interior vs. locative surface, etc.) resides in the terms of the relationship rather than in the preposition preposition, in English, the part of speech embracing a small number of words used before nouns and pronouns to connect them to the preceding material, e.g., of, in, and about. itself. By specifying the roles of the preposition in, Bennet states that "the componential definition of in as locative-interior covers not only its spatial uses but also its temporal uses" (1975:116). Following Bennet's perspective, the topological prepositions at, on and in are not semantically distributed and therefore the choice of one of them rather than the other depends on the nature of the NP that follows. If so, we may state that the prepositional prep·o·si·tion·al adj. Relating to or used as a preposition. prep  o·si complements monitor the preposition.
Thus, a large city, for example, will require in, a village--at, and a
small island--on. (2) Leech leech, predacious or parasitic annelid worm of the class Hirudinea, characterized by a cylindrical or slightly flattened body with suckers at either end for attaching to prey. (1969: 3), however, considers that the
topological prepositions at, on and in indicate that they
"ascribe as·cribe tr.v. as·cribed, as·crib·ing, as·cribes 1. To attribute to a specified cause, source, or origin: "Other people ascribe his exclusion from the canon to an unsubtle form of racism" " to the following NP a particular dimensionality. Thus, the NP that functions as a complement of the preposition in is seen as an area or volume, that is, as two-or-three dimensional. A similar approach is defended by Dirven (1993: 78-9) as he indicates that English in "conceptualises space as an enclosure enclosure (inclosure) n. land bounded by a fence, wall, hedge, ditch or other physical evidence of boundary. Unfortunately, too often these creations are not included among the actual legally-described boundaries and cause legal problems. ENCLOSURE. or volume" and following this notional no·tion·al adj. 1. Of, containing, or being a notion; mental or imaginary. 2. Speculative or theoretical. 3. category he outlines a radial radial /ra·di·al/ (ra´de-al) 1. pertaining to the radius of the arm or to the radial (lateral) aspect of the arm as opposed to the ulnar (medial) aspect; pertaining to a radius. 2. network of extensions of in: spatial enclosure is the centre from which other branches develop: time-span, state as enclosure, area, manner or means, circumstance Circumstance or circumstances can refer to:
tr.v. en·closed, en·clos·ing, en·clos·es 1. To surround on all sides; close in. 2. To fence in so as to prevent common use: enclosed the pasture. experiences such as manner or means, circumstance or cause denote de·note tr.v. de·not·ed, de·not·ing, de·notes 1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience. 2. an "enveloping en·vel·op tr.v. en·vel·oped, en·vel·op·ing, en·vel·ops 1. To enclose or encase completely with or as if with a covering: "Accompanying the darkness, a stillness envelops the city" " state. Bennet (1975: 71) conceptualises in as A [locative [interior of B]], that is, the interior of B is the location of A. So in the example 'the key is in the drawer', the message is, 'the interior of the drawer A person who orders a bank to withdraw money from an account to pay a designated person a specific sum according to the term of a bill, a check, or a draft. An individual who writes and signs a Commercial Paper, thereby becoming obligated under its terms. is where the key is located'. Cuyckens (1993: 32-33) considers that the notion of 'interior' of English in is neither necessary nor sufficient. Indeed, the notion of 'interior' is not detected in all cases, such as "he got a kick in the stomach". Besides, not all cases classified as "interior" are expressed with in, as in 'the pear pear, name for a fruit tree of the genus Pyrus of the family Rosaceae (rose family) and for its fruit, a pome. The common pear (P. communis) is one of the earliest cultivated of fruit trees, both in its native W Asia and in Europe. is under the cheese-cover', in which the pear being inside is not expressed with in. Zelinsky-Wibbelt (1993: 7) considers that English in is prototypically used in topological relations, either positional or static. (3) In broad terms, prepositions may be viewed either as words that limit themselves to providing a given relation and mark a specific function, or as words that have their own semantic connotations such as spatial or temporal; locative interior or locative surface, etc. In practical purposes, my analysis follows the latter approach in line with the semantic classification provided by the MED med adj. Medical. Used informally. n. A medication. Used informally, often in the plural. MED minimal effective dose; minimal erythema dose. MED 1. for the preposition in. It is widely held that in-, on- and at-phrases covered similar semantic roles in Middle English, as they usually overlapped in their spatial and temporal references. However, there are significant differences with regard to their use and semantic connotations. I have already undertaken an analysis of at-phrases (Iglesias Rabade forthcoming a) and on-phrases (Iglesias--Rabade forthcoming b) in Middle English and I have found 1,555 at-phrases and 2,691 on-phrases in the 608,570 words of the HCME. However, the 9,437 in-phrases by far outnumber out·num·ber tr.v. out·num·bered, out·num·ber·ing, out·num·bers To exceed the number of; be more numerous than. outnumber Verb to exceed in number: those at- and on-phrases. The analysis of the HCME shows that spatial roles were dominant in at-phrases, with 671 examples, and in on-Phs, with 879 instances, whereas in-phrases predominate in figurative semantic roles, with 5,639 tokens. 1. Helsinki Corpus data Unlike on-Phs (Iglesias Rabade forthcoming b), the survey of the corpus shows that the use of in-Phs has increased steadily and progressively throughout the Middle English period, at least until the mid of the fifteenth In music, a fifteenth (sometimes abbreviated 15ma) is the interval between one musical note and another with one-quarter or quadruple the frequency. It corresponds to two octaves. It is the fourth harmonic. century, as the figures in Table 1 indicate: The figures in Table 1 show that in-Phs were restrictively used in the first period of Middle English (1150-1250). Thus, only 0.5640 in-Phs are detected for every 100 words in ME1, whereas 1.5592 occurrences per 100 words are found in the second period of Middle English (1250-1350). It is worth noting, however, that the use of in-Phs in ME1 (1150-1250) is not homogeneous The same. Contrast with heterogeneous. homogeneous - (Or "homogenous") Of uniform nature, similar in kind. 1. In the context of distributed systems, middleware makes heterogeneous systems appear as a homogeneous entity. For example see: interoperable network. . Thus, Bodley Homilies and Vespasian Homilies have no in-Phs in the 11760 words of the texts and Peri Didaxeon, Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England includes only 8 instances in its 7350 words (0.1088%), whereas Juliane and Katherine (The Katherine Group The so-called Katherine Group is a group of five 13th century Middle English texts composed by an anonymous author of the English West Midlands. The texts are all addressed to anchoresses (religious recluses) and praise the virtue of virginity. ) incorporate 131 tokens (81+54) in the 12110 words (7180+4930) of the texts, with the rate of 1.0817. 1.1. Spatial sense The term "spatial" is used to indicate tangible or physical location, position or movement in space (cf. MED). Table 2 shows the figures for spatial sense and sub-senses covered by in-Phs in Middle English as well as the number of occurrences of each semantic field The semantic field of a word is the set of sememes (distinct meanings) expressed by the word. For example, the semantic field of "dog" includes "canine" and "to trail persistently" (also, to hound). . The data extracted from the HCME show 3149 spatial in-Phs. The average rate of usage is 0.5174 spatial in-Phs for every hundred words in Middle English, and this represents 33.36% of the total number of in-Phs found in the corpus. Let us see the spatial semantic fields in detail: S-l) The corpus contains 667 occurrences of in-Phs expressing a static local position of somebody or something placed inside a solid object or immersed im·merse tr.v. im·mersed, im·mers·ing, im·mers·es 1. To cover completely in a liquid; submerge. 2. To baptize by submerging in water. 3. in a fluid substance; enclosed in (fire, air) or into (a solid, liquid) or within a building, ship, bed, bag, e.g. in the nonry of Catysby (CMEDMUND), And in pe water sone slowen (CMALISAU), Bath in prisun stad and pin (CMCURSOR). At first glance, the figures suggest that only 7.06% of in-Phs have this semantic connotation con·no·ta·tion n. 1. The act or process of connoting. 2. a. An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing: in Middle English and cover 21.18% of all tokens found for spatial sense. The complements prisun, with 47 instances, and chirche/kirke, with 46, are the most frequent for this semantic category. The third highest number of in- Phs, with 40 tokens, occur with house. Being on the surface of or immersed in water is accounted on 31 occasions. Staying, dwelling dwelling an abnormality of gait in a horse in which there is a momentary hesitation before the foot is placed on the ground. or being enclosed in a halle, with 30 examples, a castel (18), the Parliament-(house) (16), or tower (10) are also frequently expressed with in-Phs. No other complements such as cloyster, celle Celle (tsĕl`ə), city (1994 pop. 73,670), Lower Saxony, N Germany, on the Aller River. Its manufactures include food products, electronic components, chemicals, and textiles. Wax processing and horse breeding are important locally. , chaple hallmote (court), hole, cage, temple are used more than four times. In fact, 248 complements occur only once. Thus, the preposition in predominates in contexts in which somebody or something is placed inside a solid object, immersed in a fluid substance, or enclosed in a building, but this semantic field is also covered by at- and on-Phs, although with a much lower rate. S-2) In-Phs expressing the appearance of certain contents in a book, document, poem, etc. account for 245 instances, that is, a rate of 7.78% within the spatial sense and 2.59% with regard to all in-Phs detected in the corpus. The complement boke/book predominates with 51 examples, e.g. In pese same bokes (CMCAXPRO). Tretis/treatise, with 6 tokens, statute (5) and chronicle (4) are also represented, e.g. in eny commune commune, in medieval history commune (kôm`y  n), in medieval history, collective institution that developed in continental Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. tretys of the Astrelabie (CMANCRE). Parts of a book, such as
chapitre/chapter, with 16 instances, article (16), prologue pro·logue also pro·log n. 1. An introduction or preface, especially a poem recited to introduce a play. 2. An introduction or introductory chapter, as to a novel. 3. An introductory act, event, or period. (4) are also referred to with in-Phs, e.g. in the 3 chapitre bifore (CMANCRE). The second highest number of in-Phs in this category is found with the complement gospel (25); the terms scripture(s), with 12 examples, testament (4), evangel (3), e.g. And God seyd in pe gospel (CMAELR3); O cros in pe ald testament (CMCURSOR) are also used. There is a stable tendency to use the preposition in and not on or at for this semantic category. S-3) The corpus includes 389 instances of in-Phs to denote that something is located in or put into somebody. Such phrases referring to location in one's heart, mind and thought are frequently used. Thus the complement herte is the most common and occurs on 126 occasions, e.g. Jn herte he gynnep fecche mood (CMALISAU). In one's mynde is found on 47 occasions, e.g. And conceyve in your myndes (CMDIGBY), and in one's pouhte 36 times, e.g. pan ani ani (ä`nē), bird: see cuckoo. (1) See animated cursor. (2) (Automatic Number Identification) A telephone service that transmits the billing number (BN) and the telephone number of the man mai thing in thoght (CMCURSOR). The second highest number of examples found in this category occurs with soule, with 76 instances such as vertuous diuersete fourme in by soule (CMAELR3). Location in one's body or flesh (very often opposed to soul) tends to be expressed with in-Phs. Thus the complement bodi/body includes 49 tokens, e.g. pe find he sal in bodi ber (CMCURSOR) and flesh is found 18 times. In-Phs appear on 61 occasions to express position poised on some part of one's body such as the head, breast, nose, etc. On one's hed appears 23 times, e.g. His eyen stepe, and rollynge in his heed (CMTVERS); in one's brest 13, in one's nose, in one's forehead forehead /fore·head/ (-hed) frons; the part of the face above the eyes. fore·head n. The part of the face between the eyebrows, the normal hairline, and the temples. Also called brow. also occur with 6 tokens each. It is worth noting that *in fot, *in fet, *in kne, *in leg are not found. The number of occurrences in this semantic field shows a ratio of 12.35% when compared with all spatial examples and 4.12% within the whole number of in-Phs found in the corpus. S-4) In-Phs appear on 167 occasions to express position in one's hand In one's possession or keeping. At one's risk, or peril; as, I took my life in my hand s>. See also: Hand Hand (s), arm(s); also figurative in someone's hand (= in someone's possession). Being bound in, tied with chains, ropes, fetters fet·ter n. 1. A chain or shackle for the ankles or feet. 2. Something that serves to restrict; a restraint. tr.v. fet·tered, fet·ter·ing, fet·ters 1. To put fetters on; shackle. are also expressed with in-Phs. In this category, most instances occur with the prepositional complements hande, with 127 instances, e.g. and in the hand of oure Lord God Almyghty (CMECTPROS) and arme which is registered on 23 occasions, e.g Take hym in your armys (CMDIGBY). Other prepositional complements include pyte, cage, etc., e.g. For thei be as fers as a lyon in a cage (CMDIGBY). The small number of examples under this category shows a rate of 5.30% within the spatial location and 1.76% when related to all in-Phs of the corpus. S-5) The category which expresses a position on the surface of something and surrounded by its parts: in or into a city, town, wood, forest. Also the situation of something in or on a place which extends in all directions: heaven, hell, earth, world, sea, field, country, etc. This category includes 1327 examples, that is, a rate of 42.14% within the spatial location and 14.06% when related to all in-Phs of the corpus. The prepositional phrase prepositional phrase n. Abbr. PP A phrase that consists of a preposition and its object and has adjectival or adverbial value, such as in the house in the people in the house or by him in in heuen predominates in this category. It has been detected on 162 occasions, e.g pet he is ine heuene (CMAYENBI). Likewise in pe/pis werold/world is highly represented and there are 131 examples, e.g. Nis in pis werlde so fair quene (CMALISAU). Each of the prepositional complements eorpe/erpe and place are found on 96 occasions, e.g. Alle men leuyng in erpe (CMCLOUD); in a place beside your Castell (CMDOCU4). The location of something or somebody in land/lond (of) has been found on 72 occasions, e.g. in pe londe of Ermonie (CMBEVIS). In helle follows with 71 tokens, e.g. in helle shame and confusioun (CMECTPROS), The complements toune, contry, and felde are also extensively used as they appear on 57, 46, and 43 occasions respectively. Examples include: Knizttes hem armen in court and tounes (CMALISAU); in euery contre pai hade hade n. Geology The angle of inclination from the vertical of a vein, fault, or lode. [Origin unknown.] grete werre and stryfe (CMBRUT3); Most strong and myghty in feld for to fyght (CMDIGBY). 36 examples are found with see, e.g. trauailede half zere and more in pe see (CMBRUT3). With regard to countries and cities, in Engeland predominates with 26 tokens and in London follows, with 17 examples, e.g. in london as elles where in the rewme (CMDOCU3). This spatial category includes many other prepositional complements that occur less than ten times, such as wode, stret, forest, etc. One may conclusively con·clu·sive adj. Serving to put an end to doubt, question, or uncertainty; decisive. See Synonyms at decisive. con·clu  sive·ly adv. state that in-Phs still cover
the roles that at- and on-Phs came to fill later on.
S-6) The 198 occurrences, with a rate of 6.28% when compared with other spatial instances and 2.09% with regard to all examples in the corpus, were also found to denote a position at, beside a place, e.g.. in pat oper syde of pe cros (CMAELR3); equaciouns in the bordure of thin Astralabie (CMASTRO); and in the botme of the ship (CMECTPROS); sitte bitwene bothe alras in his right place (CMASTRO). The prepositional complements line, with 36 tokens, centre, with 34, border with 15, and circle with 11, predominate in this category. The remaining instances occur less than five times for each type. Some prepositional complements in this category are overrated Overrated was a Horde World of Warcraft guild, based on the US Black Dragonflight Realm. On November 2 2006, the majority of the guild members were indefinitely banned from the game for use of (or directly benefiting from) a third-party "wall-hack", used to bypass content as many instances occur in the same text. Thus the corpus shows 36 instances of in line (19 of them in CMQUATO), 34 of in center (26 of them also in CMQUATO), 15 of in border (11 of them in CMASTRO). S-7) This category includes 120 in-Phs, that is, a rate of 3.81% within the spatial reference and 1.27% when related to all in-Phs of the corpus. They denote a specification with regard to quantity, dimension or number such as in which fifthe partie shalt shalt aux.v. Archaic A second person singular present tense of shall. thou fynden (CMASTRO); Was twenti fote in lengpe be tale (CMBEVIS). In part (66), in lengpe, (21), in depnesse (12), in heiht (7), and in wydness (4) are the most common. S-8) Under this heading I include only 36 in-Phs (1.55% within the spatial area and 0.51% in relation to all the other instances) denoting position in the midst Adv. 1. in the midst - the middle or central part or point; "in the midst of the forest"; "could he walk out in the midst of his piece?" midmost of persons or things and exemplified in the middle of, e.g. in the middel of this plate (CMQUATO). In mydde of may however be used to indicate the centre of a given period of time as in sonne in mydde of the day (CMASTRO). In conclusion, the most significant feature of spatial in-Phs is the absence of idiomatic constructions. In fact, on the semantic level the preposition in and its complement constitute a conceptual unit with an informative content in our corpus. However, I have already found that many at- (Iglesias-Rabade forthcoming b) and on-Phs (Iglesias-Rabade forthcoming b) develop from a spatial or temporal sense to a figurative or abstract meaning, initiating a process of idiomatisation. My data, for the Middle English period, show similar results to those shown by Lundskaer-Nielsen (1993) with regard to the use of in-, at- and on-Phs in Old English. Lundskaer-Nielsen compared the range of uses of these prepositions and found that in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, collective name given several English monastic chronicles in Anglo-Saxon, all stemming from a compilation made from old annals and other sources c.891. (years 892-900) only on, with 9 occurrences, has a figurative or abstract sense (1993:88). His study of the Peterborough Chronicle The Peterborough Chronicle (also called the Laud Manuscript), one of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, contains unique information about the history of England after the Norman Conquest. According to philologist J.A.W. for the years 1122-54 also shows that the preposition on is found 25 times with a figurative or abstract sense, whereas in presents no instances of this and there is only one example with aet (1993: 96). Lundskaer-Nielsen's data are not so conclusive Determinative; beyond dispute or question. That which is conclusive is manifest, clear, or obvious. It is a legal inference made so peremptorily that it cannot be overthrown or contradicted. for the Middle English period, partly because his corpus is limited to three Middle English texts (Ancrene Wise, parts six and seven, Vices and Virtues and Chaucer's A Treatise A scholarly legal publication containing all the law relating to a particular area, such as Criminal Law or Land-Use Control. Lawyers commonly use treatises in order to review the law and update their knowledge of pertinent case decisions and statutes. on the Astrolobe). However, a survey of the HCME shows 151 on-Phs that denote an idiomatic spatial sense and account for a rate of 17.17% within the spatial sphere and 5.61% when related to all other on-Phs. 1.2. Temporal sense The survey of the HCME accounts for 487 in-Phs with a temporal sense. The number of occurrences is much less than that found in spatial categories. For each 6.46 spatial occurrences a single token is found with a temporal sense. So the average rate of usage falls to 0.08 in-Phs for every hundred words in Middle English and covers only 5.16% of the total number of in-Phs found in the corpus. The following is a detailed account of temporal categories: T-l) The analysis of the corpus has shown that 456 instances (out of the 487 which were found with a temporal sense) are used to indicate that an action either takes place during a period of time or occupies the whole of a period, e.g. In pe tyme of be bataile (CMCAPCHR). In-Phs are also used to indicate that something occurs at a point in time (week, day, etc.) as in in be lest lest conj. For fear that: tiptoed lest the guard should hear her; anxious lest he become ill. [Middle English, from Old English of Seyn Jerom (CMCAPCHR); in the 13 day of Decembre (CMASTRO). That an action occurs in a certain part of the day may be expressed with an in-Phs, e.g. Many ben jolyf in pe morowenyng (CMALISAU); And polen dep in pe euenyng (CMALISAU). In-Phs are also used to indicate a certain year or month, e.g. in the zere of our Lord God M=l=CCC CCC A very speculative grade assigned to a debt obligation by a rating agency. Such a rating indicates default or considerable doubt that interest will be paid or principal repaid. Also called Caa. & xxij (CMBRUT3); In Mai, in pe formeste dai (CMBEVIS). It is rarely used as opposed to night (1), e.g. To morwe in pe dai (CMBEVIS). The seasons of the year are very commonly expressed with in-Phs. Thus in sumer is found on 14 occasions, in wynter 12, in spryng 2. The prepositional complement tyme predominates with 167 examples. The second highest number of occurrences (122) are found with dai. The complement gere follows with 78 tokens. Month is used on 22 occasions and the parts of a day are also very often referred to with in-Phs: the complement morowenyng occurs 22 times, nihte 15, and euenyng 3. A specific day of the week is only found on one occasion, with Tuesday. At a certain houre is recorded 7 times and in weke with the meaning "per week" is found on 3 occasions, e.g. onys or tweys in the weke (CMEDMUND). All temporal complements tend to be used with a determiner, e.g. in pis gere, in his tyme, in Seyn Jeromes dai, etc. T-2) Within this category I have classified 31 in-Phs (that is, a rate of 6.36% of all temporal instances and 0.32% of all examples in the corpus) which are used as composite phrases which denote a temporal relationship such as in pe mene tyme, e.g. in pe mene tyme deide here Lorde Agamp (CMBRUT3), in the mene whyle (CMGREGOR), in peende (CMGREGOR), in the begynnyng (CMINNOCE), sumer tide (CMHANSYN), etc. Temporal phrases such as sumer tyme, winter tyme, are also included under this category. Conclusively, like in spatial roles, there are no temporal in-Phs that could be recorded as idiomatic constructions. 1.3. Figurative or abstract sense 5639 in-Phs have been found which do not denote a spatial or temporal sense (refer to Table 4). The number of occurrences is surprisingly high as they exceed, for example, the figures found both in spatial and temporal categories. So, 0.92 instances were found for every hundred words in the corpus analysed. Let us consider them in detail: F-l) In the survey of the data in this category I have found 609 examples of in-Phs expressing that somebody or something is engaged in an action or in a course of action. They are basically used with prepositional complements implying an action: battle, war, quarrel QUARREL. A dispute; a difference. In law, particularly in releases, which are taken most strongly against the releasor, when a man releases all quarrels he is said to release all actions, real and personal. 8 Co. 153. , fight, works, things. The examples found in this section represent a rate of 10.79% in relation to all figurative tokens and 6.45% when compared with all in-Phs found in the corpus. The prepositional complement thing (= action, activity) predominates with 74 tokens, e.g. But [in] this thing hath hath v. Archaic Third person singular present tense of have. ben discoveryd (CMBOETH). 21 examples are recorded as in bataile, e.g. a strong man in bataile he was (CMCAPCHR), whereas 7 tokens were detected as in fiht/fihting, e.g. in pan fihte (CMBRUT1) and another 7 instances were found including the prepositional complement werre, e.g. Lesen her lorde in pat werre (CMALISAU). Other prepositional complements occur less than five times each. F-2) I have identified 1811 occurrences which denote a certain form, shape or manner. Under this category I also include 'in the presence, sight, of somebody or something', and 'in a language'. The instances for this section represent the high rate of 32.11% in relation to all figurative tokens and 19.19% when compared with all in-Phs found in the corpus. The survey shows many examples which express a certain manner -in (no, al, this, ani, mani) manner (162 tokens), wise (126 instances), e.g. in a ful gastfull maner (CMEDMUND); and seyde in this wise: "My lord," quod quod Noun Brit slang a jail [origin unknown] she, "as ... (CMECTPROS). In degre is found on 33 occasions, e.g. leuyng in pe comoun degree of Cristen (CMCLOUD). Within this category are 53 in-Phs which indicate the language in which somebody speaks or writes -in Latyn is found 22 times, in Englisch 12 times, written on the godspelle 26 times, e.g. "bestes" in Latyn tunge (CMASTRO), And God seyd in pe gospel (CMAELR3). There is a great number of in-Phs whose complement occurs less than 10 times, e.g. in blod, in red, in clops, etc. F-3) There are 2776 instances expressing a certain state or condition. This number represents nearly half of all figurative examples (49.22%) and 29.41% within the whole number of in-Phs. They usually occur with a noun noun [Lat.,=name], in English, part of speech of vast semantic range. It can be used to name a person, place, thing, idea, or time. It generally functions as subject, object, or indirect object of the verb in the sentence, and may be distinguished by a number of implying a state: faith, truth, haste, pain, peace, will, hope. They also occur to indicate that somebody or something is subject to something or somebody (under God, law, vow), e.g. in god, grace, mercy, etc. In lyfe with 96 tokens predominates in this category. To be under the rule or protection of God is expressed as in god on 49 occasions; under law is also found as in lawe 36 times. In service follows with 35 tokens. Each of the following is found more than twenty times: to be in peyne (32 occasions.), in pes (31), in loue (31) in sorou (24), in grace (24) in joie (24), in will (24), in bliss (23), in spirit (22). Examples include: in my lyf (CMEARLPS); He was ydo in gode warde (CMALISAU); In pe ald lagh was be-for pe neu (CMCURSOR); and in greet peyne (CMECTPROS); Jn mychel loue is grete mournynge (CMALISAU); in pe blisse of heuen (CMCLOUD); he is oon in spirit wit hym (CMAELR3). F-4) In this category I include 47 instances of in-Phs which indicate that something appears in the shape of something e.g. in conclusioun, in ensaumple, in signe, in cause, in token, in witnesse. The phrase in signe predominates with 16 examples, e.g. A cros was mad in signe o rode (CMCURSOR), while all other phrases are recorded less than ten times. The small number of instances found in this category represent a ratio of only 0.83% with regard to the figures found in the figurative roles and 0.49% within the whole number of in-Phs of the corpus. F-5) I have found 129 in-Phs with the sense "for the benefit of somebody, on behalf of somebody, for the service of sb", etc. These phrases represent a ratio of 2.28% with regard to all figurative in-Phs and 1.36% taking into account all in-Phs in the corpus. The most common prepositional complement is name with 56 examples, e.g. Jn pe name of pe kyng (CMALISAU). Worscipe follows with 35 tokens, e.g. In whos worshippe this fest we honoure (CMDIGBY). Other prepositional phrases such as in honour, in behalf, etc. are recorded less than 10 times each. F-6) Most instances recorded in this section present a certain idiomatic sense. I have included in deed in fact; in truth; verily. See Indeed. See also: Deed , in doubt, in vayn, in speciall, in generall, in certayn and in despite. The Phs in deed is the most frequent as it is found on 51 occasions, e.g. and pis was fulfillid in dede (CMCAPCHR). In special appears 23 times, e.g. The whiche fourthe partie in speciall shal shewen a table of the verrey moeving of the mone (CMASTRO). In general is found on 12 occasions, e.g. in general his falsenesse were ayeinsaide (CMDOCU3). In vain vain adj. vain·er, vain·est 1. Not yielding the desired outcome; fruitless: a vain attempt. 2. Lacking substance or worth: vain talk. 3. and in despite occur 11 times each, e.g. pe wicked Wicked may refer to:
1.4. Verb-dependent in The data of Table 5 include only 162 examples in which the verb verb, part of speech typically used to indicate an action. English verbs are inflected for person, number, tense and partially for mood; compound verbs formed with auxiliaries (e.g., be, can, have, do, will) provide a distinction of voice. monitors the in-Phs. The number of occurrences is very small as they represent a rate of 1.71% of all instances found in the corpus, and 0.02 tokens are found for every hundred words. This structural wording V(erb)-in-C(omplement) includes most instances to express a mental action or attitude, e.g. ileue in, trouen in, etc. such as and hise disciplis bileueden in hym (CMNTEST); pat man in godd haue mistrouing (CMCURSOR); Gode is to hopen in our Lord pan to hopen in princes (CMEARLPS). The use of V(erb)-in-C(omplement) is very rare in Middle English, and in fact 35 occurrences out of the 162 found in the HCME appear in CMNTEST with the verb bileuen. Finally, it is also surprising the small number of verbs which adopt this structure. 2. Dialectal di·a·lect n. 1. a. A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in distribution We shall now see the dialectal distribution of in-Phs in Middle English. By so doing, we find that the survey of the HCME shows in the four sub-periods the dialectal distribution of in-Phs. The figures in Table 6 show that there are significant variations depending on the dialectal area. Kentish and Southern areas hardly include in-Phs in ME1. The 5880 words of the Vespasian Homilies (the only text recorded in the corpus for Kentish dialect dialect, variety of a language used by a group of speakers within a particular speech community. Every individual speaks a variety of his language, termed an idiolect. ) do not contain any in-Ph and the Southern dialect Many languages have a southern dialect, sometimes more than one. This page does not list all possible southern dialects; you may have better luck looking up the language in question. records only 1 in-Ph for every thousand words (0.1%). The East Midland Noun 1. East Midland - the dialect of Middle English that replaced West Saxon as the literary language and which developed into Modern English Middle English - English from about 1100 to 1450 dialect, however, records 6 in-Phs for every thousand words and the West Midland Noun 1. West Midland - a dialect of Middle English Middle English - English from about 1100 to 1450 7.5. There is no material to measure this variable in the Northern dialect. The tabulated figures for ME2 show an important increase of in-Phs with regard to the earlier period. This increase is mainly detected in the Kentish dialect that shows 19.4 in-Phs for every thousand words. The rest of the dialects maintain a similar rate varying from 11.2 in-Phs to 17. This increase continues in ME3 as the rate rises to figures between 1.36% and 2.61% (the in-occurrences found in the West Midlands West Midlands, former metropolitan county, central England. Created in the 1974 local government reorganization, the county embraced the Birmingham conurbation and comprised seven metropolitan districts: Walsall, Wolverhampton, Dudley, Sandwell, Birmingham, Solihull, are not relevant because there are not sufficient data to measure a tendency). The data for ME4 show significant variations with regard to ME3. There is a decline which is attested at·test v. at·test·ed, at·test·ing, at·tests v.tr. 1. To affirm to be correct, true, or genuine: The date of the painting was attested by the appraiser. 2. in all dialects, except in the Northern dialect. The use of in-Phs falls to rates that vary between 0.91% in the West Midland area and 2.33% in the Northern dialect. The assessment of in-Phs in the course of the Middle English period proves that the West Midland dialect keeps a similar rate of usage, from ME1 (0.75%) to ME4 (0.91%) with a moderate increase during ME2 and ME3, whereas the Southern dialect increases from 0.1% in ME1 to 1.83% in ME3, falling to 1.40% in ME4. The East Midlands The East Midlands is one of the regions of England and consists of most of the eastern half of the traditional region of the Midlands. It consists of the combined area of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire and most of Lincolnshire. have the most notable increase from 0.6% to 2.61% in ME3, declining smoothly to 2.11% in ME4. The following table (Table 7) shows the differences in frequency of in-Phs between prose and verse, according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the data exhibited in the HCME. The data shown in Table 7 confirm that prose includes more in-Phs than poetry in the Middle English period. Thus 1.72 tokens were found for every hundred words in prose, whereas this rate falls to 1.10% in poetry. It is worth noting that the figures in Table 7 shows that the difference (0.37 for M1 & ME2 and 0.36 for ME3 & ME4) in the usage of in-Phs between prose and verse is kept stable in the course of the Middle English period. Table 8 (page 73) gives the frequencies of in-Phs according to the type of text. Taking for granted that the average Middle English rate of in-Phs is 1.55%, the data shown in Table 8 do not show relevant deviations from that rate. Religious texts (homilies, the bible, religious treatises, Lifes of Saints, sermons, rules) and technical works (laws, historical documents, handbooks, philosophy, science, medicine, travelogues) show a slightly higher rate (1.77%). However, history texts offer a lower frequency as they only show one in-Ph for every hundred words. An equal rate is also provided by drama, and romance and fiction works (1.03% and 1.07, respectively). The figures for letters (1.18%) are also below average. It is worth noting, however, that religious texts show a great variety of frequency. The rate of 0.84% for ME1 and ME2 triplicates in ME3 and ME4 (2.93%). It is also striking to notice the high rate (2.93%) found in Religious texts for ME3 and ME4 compared with the rates for other text types for the same period. Table 9 (page 74) includes the prepositional complements recorded more than 30 times in the HCME, headed by the preposition in. Although temporal in-Phs represent only 5.15% with regard to all in-Phs found in the corpus, the prepositional phrase in (pis, pe, his, same, ure louerde, etc.) tyme, e.g. In the tyme of pe bataile (CMCAPCHR), is the most common in the corpus. On the surface of something which extends in all directions such as heuen, werld, erpe, helle is very commonly expressed with in-Phs. Thus the prepositional complement heuen predominates with 162 instances. Equally, the expression of a certain manner -in (no, al, this, ani, mani) manner (162 tokens), wise (126 instances) is profusely pro·fuse adj. 1. Plentiful; copious. 2. Giving or given freely and abundantly; extravagant: were profuse in their compliments. used in the corpus. The complements that expressed a certain state or condition are also repeatedly recorded in Middle English texts. 3. In-Phs structure The analysis of the corpus shows that there is no significant variation in the structure of in-Phs. The preposition heads a complement that may appear as a single noun, e.g. in heuen, in payn, in vayn; or noun preceded by a determiner, e.g. in pe londe of Ermonie (CMBEVIS) or a determiner and a modifier (programming) modifier - An operation that alters the state of an object. Modifiers often have names that begin with "set" and corresponding selector functions whose names begin with "get". , e.g. in eny commune tretys of the Astrelabie (CMANCRE). However, the 120 tokens that denote a specification with regard to quantity, dimension or number do not take determiners such as in lengpe, in depnesse, in heiht, in wydness, e.g. Was twenti fote in lengpe (CMBEVIS), and nor do the complements which express the language in which somebody speaks or writes--in Latyn, in Englisch, e.g. "bestes" in Latyn tunge (CMASTRO). 4. Conclusions The use of in-Phs to indicate a position on the surface of something and surrounded by its parts is highly represented in the corpus: in or into a city, town, wood, forest. Also on the surface of something which extends in all directions: heaven, hell, earth, world, sea, field, island, country predominate within the spatial roles (14.06 % with regard to all in-Phs, and 42.14% within spatial sense). Unlike Present Day English the static location within the boundaries of space (building, house) or enclosed in is not very common (7.06% with respect to all in-Phs, and 21.18% within spatial sense). Unlike on-Phs (Iglesias Rabade forthcoming b) the data also evince that there is no significant usage of idiomatic in-Phs with a spatial reference. The number of temporal instances is very small as they only represent a rate of 5.15% with regard to all in-Phs found in the corpus. Thus in-Phs are not predominant pre·dom·i·nant adj. 1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant. 2. in temporal senses, particularly because the preposition at (Iglesias Rabade forthcoming b) tends to cover this role. Our analysis also shows that a great number of in-Phs have acquired a figurative or abstract sense. So in-Phs are subject to a massive transition from a spatial referential meaning to a more abstract one from 1350. Thus, nearly half of the in-Phs are used to express the role of a certain manner, state or condition (48.6% with regard to all in-Phs found in the corpus). Kentish and Southern dialects hardly use in-Phs in M1, whereas West Midlands stands in the lead. However, the Kentish dialect provides the highest rate in ME2 and West Midlands the lowest rate. On scrutinising the whole Middle English period, East Midlands is well at the top, whereas the East Midland areas show the smallest figures. Mode of composition (prose vs. poetry) provides significant variations in the assessment of the whole period of ME, as in-Phs are more frequent in prose. With regard to text type, it seems that religious and technical texts show more in-Phs than the other text types.
Table 1.
Date No of words No of in-Phs Rate %
ME1 (1150-1250) 113 010 660 0.5640
ME2 (1250-1350) 97 480 1520 1.5592
ME3 (1350-1420) 184 230 3570 1.9377
ME4 (1420-1500) 213 850 3687 1.7241
ME (1150-1500) 608 570 9437 1.5506
Table 2. Middle English spatial sense
Sense Semantic fields Tokens Rate %
(within
spatial
sense)
Spatial Inside a solid object or immersed in 667 21.18
a fluid substance. Enclosed in (fire,
air) or into (a solid, liquid).
Within a building, ship, bed, bag.
In a book, document, poem, etc. 245 7.78
In or into somebody, in one's body, 389 12.35
in one's heart, mind, memory, thought.
In the hand(s), arm(s). Also fig. in 167 5.30
someone's hand (= in someone's
possession). In chains, ropes,
fetters, tied with, bound in.
On or onto the surface of something 1327 42.14
and surrounded by its parts: in or
into a city, town, wood, forest. Also
on the surface of something which
extends in all directions: heaven,
hell, earth, world, sea, field,
island, country.
At a place or position; at, beside. 198 6.28
With regard to quantity, dimension, 120 3.81
number
Spatial Idiomatic phrases denoting position: 36 1.14
(idiomatic "in the middle of"
phrases)
Middle English/Total 3149 Rate %
(with
regard
to the
corpus
words):
0.5174
Semantic fields Rate % Field
(with
regard
to all
in-Phs)
Inside a solid object or immersed in 7.06 S-1
a fluid substance. Enclosed in (fire,
air) or into (a solid, liquid).
Within a building, ship, bed, bag.
In a book, document, poem, etc. 2.59 S-2
In or into somebody, in one's body, 4.12 S-3
in one's heart, mind, memory, thought.
In the hand(s), arm(s). Also fig. in 1.76 S-4
someone's hand (= in someone's
possession). In chains, ropes,
fetters, tied with, bound in.
On or onto the surface of something 14.06 S-5
and surrounded by its parts: in or
into a city, town, wood, forest. Also
on the surface of something which
extends in all directions: heaven,
hell, earth, world, sea, field,
island, country.
At a place or position; at, beside. 2.09 S-6
With regard to quantity, dimension, 1.27 S-7
number
Idiomatic phrases denoting position: 0.38 S-8
"in the middle of"
Middle English/Total Rate %
(with
regard
to the
corpus
words):
0.5174
Table 3. Middle English temporal sense
Sense Semantic fields Tokens Rate % Rate % Field
(within (with
temporal regard
sense) to all
in-Phs)
Temporal During a period of 456 93.63 4.83 T-1
time; for the space
of a period of time.
At a point in time,
upon a time, day,
etc.; at the end, at
the beginning, in
the first place
Temporal 31 6.36 0.32 T-2
(Phrases)
Total 487 Rate % (with regard
to the corpus
words): 0.08
Table 4. Middle English figurative and abstract sense
Sense Semantic fields Tokens Rate % Rate % Field
(within (with
fig./ regard
abstr. to all
sense) in-Phs)
In the In an action or in 609 10.79 6.45 F-1
course of a course of action,
an action engaged in
something, during
an action or
process. With a
noun implying an
action: arms,
battle, war,
quarrel, works,
things.
Manner In two parts, 1811 32.11 19.19 F-2
divisions, pieces;
in a form, shape or
manner; in the
presence, sight, or
hearing of somebody;
in a language.
State or With a noun implying 2776 49.22 29.41 F-3
condition a state: faith,
truth, haste,
right; purpose,
will, hope, point.
Subject to
something or
somebody (under God,
law, vow) e.g. in
god, grace, mercy,
pain, accordance.
As As something or in 47 0.83 0.49 F-4
something the shape of
something e.g.
conclusion, example.
As sign, token sign,
cause, token,
witness.
Benefit On behalf of: half 129 2.28 1.36 F-5
(behalf), name,
honour, worship.
Idiomatic In general, in vain, 267 4.73 2.82 F-6
in special.
Total 5639 Rate % (with
regard to the
corpus words):
0.92
Table 5. Middle English verb-dependent in
Verb-dependent Semantic fields Tokens Rate % (with Field
regard to
all in-Phs)
Mental actions Indicating the object 162 V-1
and attitudes to which mental
action is directed:
in regard to,
concerning (after
verbs such as Heaven,
biliven, trouen,
hopen, delite, etc.
Total 162 Rate % (with regard
to the corpus
words): 0.0003
Table 6. Dialectal distribution of in-Phs
Date/ M1 (1150-1250) M2 (1250-1350)
Dialect Words Oc. Rate % Words Oc. Rate %
Northern -- -- -- -- -- --
Kentish 5880 0 0 14040 271 1.93
Southern 20150 21 0.10 29500 396 1.34
East Mid. 26760 161 0.60 48541 830 1.70
West Mid. 60220 455 0.75 4260 48 1.12
Date/ M3 (1350-1420) M4 (1420-1500)
Dialect Words Oc. Rate % Words Oc. Rate %
Northern 25960 517 1.99 37090 867 2.33
Kentish -- -- -- -- -- --
Southern 37140 682 1.83 27640 387 1.40
East Mid. 83680 2187 2.61 108690 2301 2.11
West Mid. 8124 111 1.36 22298 203 0.91
Table 7. In-Phs in prose and poetry
Date M1 & M2 M1 & M2 Middle English
Composition
type Prose Poetry Prose Poetry Prose Poetry
No of words 105.570 104.920 334120 63960 439690 168880
No of in-Phs 1298 897 6271 971 7569 1868
Rate % 1.22 0.85 1.87 1.51 1.72 1.10
Table 8. In-Phs and text type
Date M1 & M2 (1150-1350)
Text type No of No of Rate %
words in-Phs
Religion (Homily, Bible, Rel. 154396 1305 0.84
Treat., Life of Saint, &
Sermon, Rule).
History 39650 263 0.66
Technical (Law, Docum., 10850 15 0.13
Handb., Philosophy, Science,
Medicine, Travelogue)
Letters
Drama
Romance & Fiction 41434 461 1.11
Date M1 & M2 (1350-1500)
Text type No of No of Rate %
words in-Phs
Religion (Homily, Bible, Rel. 124428 3658 2.93
Treat., Life of Saint, &
Sermon, Rule).
History 26930 410 1.52
Technical (Law, Docum., 115933 2217 1.91
Handb., Philosophy, Science,
Medicine, Travelogue)
Letters 29050 343 1.18
Drama 25670 276 1.07
Romance & Fiction 50112 489 0.97
Date M1 & M2 (1150-1350)
Text type No of No of Rate %
words in-Phs
Religion (Homily, Bible, Rel. 278824 4963 1.77
Treat., Life of Saint, &
Sermon, Rule).
History 66580 673 1.01
Technical (Law, Docum., 126783 2232 1.76
Handb., Philosophy, Science,
Medicine, Travelogue)
Letters 29050 343 1.18
Drama 25670 276 1.07
Romance & Fiction 91546 950 1.03
Table 9. The most frequent prepositional complements
Prep. Tokens
complement
tyme 167
heuen 162
manner 162
werld 131
wise 126
dai 122
erpe 96
lyfe 96
soule 76
yere/gere 78
ping 74
land/lond 72
helle 71
part 66
toun 57
name 56
deed 51
boke 51
body 49
god 49
prisun 47
mynde 47
contry 46
chiriche/kirke 46
felde 43
house 40
poughte 36
line 36
midle 36
lawe 36
se 36
worscipe 35
centre 34
degree 33
payn 32
pes 31
loue 31
water 31
hall 30
(1) This research has been funded by the Spanish Ministery of Education and Science (DGES DGES Director General of Electricity Supply (UK) ), grant number BFF BFF Best Friends Forever (chat) BFF Best Foot Forward BFF Ben Folds Five (band) BFF Born Free Foundation BFF Binary File Format BFF Boston Film Festival BFF Biotech Finance Forum 2000-0492. This grant is hereby gratefully acknowledged. (2) Bennet (1975: 65) insists on the fact that "what matters is the way an object is thought of on a particular occasion". Thus, one may think of Coventry, for example, as an enclosed area surrounded by the city boundaries (x lives in Coventry), as a given point on an itinerary (you have to change trains at Coventry) or as a surface (more bombs were dropped on Coventry). (3) From a syntactical syn·tac·tic or syn·tac·ti·cal adj. Of, relating to, or conforming to the rules of syntax. [Greek suntaktikos, putting together, from suntaktos, constructed, from point of view, Fillmore (1968), Dirven (1982) and Radden (1982) posit that prepositions are a manifestation man·i·fes·ta·tion n. An indication of the existence, reality, or presence of something, especially an illness. manifestation (man´ifestā´sh of underlying verb and noun phrase noun phrase n. Abbr. NP A phrase whose head is a noun, as our favorite restaurant. Noun 1. noun phrase - a phrase that can function as the subject or object of a verb nominal, nominal phrase relations. Thus a preposition shows a given relation and marks a given function in the framework of Case Grammar Case Grammar is a theory of grammatical analysis, created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the context of Transformational Grammar. This theory proposes to analyze sentences as constituted by the combination of a verb plus a set of deep cases (i.e. . Fillmore (1968: 367) considers prepositions as variants of inflectional in·flec·tion n. 1. The act of inflecting or the state of being inflected. 2. Alteration in pitch or tone of the voice. 3. Grammar a. units and therefore as markers on noun phrases. This view is contended by Jackendoff (1973, 1977). He posits that although "diachronically the reduction of prepositions to case markers in undeniable, it is not clear that such a process plays a role in synchronic syn·chron·ic adj. 1. Synchronous. 2. Of or relating to the study of phenomena, such as linguistic features, or of events of a particular time, without reference to their historical context. grammar" (1977: 80). BIBLIOGRAPHY bibliography. The listing of books is of ancient origin. Lists of clay tablets have been found at Nineveh and elsewhere; the library at Alexandria had subject lists of its books. Anderson, Stephen--Paul Kiparsky (eds.) 1973 A Festschrift fest·schrift n. pl. fest·schrif·ten or fest·schrifts A volume of learned articles or essays by colleagues and admirers, serving as a tribute or memorial especially to a scholar. for Morris Halle Morris Halle, né Pinkowitz, is an American linguist. He was born in Liepaja, Latvia, in 1923, and moved with his family to Riga in 1929. They arrived in the United States in 1940. From 1941 to 1943, Halle studied engineering at the City College of New York. . New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Holt holt n. Archaic A wood or grove; a copse. [Middle English, from Old English.] holt Noun the lair of an otter [from , Rinehart and Winston. Bach, Emmon--Robert T. Harms (eds.) 1968 Universals in linguistic theory. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Bennett, David C. 1975 Spatial and temporal uses of English prepositions This is a list of English prepositions. In English, some prepositions are short, typically containing five letters or fewer. There are, however, a significant number of multi-word prepositions. . London: Longman. Cuyckens, Hubert 1993 "The Dutch spatial preposition 'in': A cognitive-semantic analysis", in: Cornelia Zelinsky-Wibbelt (ed.), 27-72. Dirven, Rene 1993 "Dividing up physical and mental space into conceptual categories by means of English prepositions", in: Cornelia Zelinsky-Wibbelt (ed.), 73-97. Fillmore, Charles Fillmore, Charles (1854–1948) Protestant religious leader, businessman; born near St. Cloud, Minn. The son of a merchant who traded with Indians, he worked as a clerk and muleteer and speculated in real estate in Oklahoma, Colorado, and Texas before turning to J. 1968 "The case for case", in: Emmon Bach--Robert T. Harms (eds.), 1-88. Iglesias-Rabade, Luis forthcoming a "French influence in ME phrasing: some evidence from at-prepositional phrases", Neuphilologische Mitteilungen. forthcoming b "A semantic study of on-phrases in ME", Studia Neophilologica. Jackendoff, Ray 1973 "The base rules of prepositional phrases", in: Stephen Anderson--Paul Kiparsky (eds.), 345-356. 1977 X' syntax syntax: see grammar. syntax Arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. . A study of phrase structure. Cambridge/Mass.; London: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Jucker, Andreas H. (ed.) 1995 Historical pragmatics Historical pragmatics is the study of language use (especially in spoken language) in its historical dimension. State of the Art Since the late 1970's, historical linguists have discovered their growing interest in pragmatic questions—first in German, then in : Pragmatic developments in the history of English. (Pragmatics pragmatics In linguistics and philosophy, the study of the use of natural language in communication; more generally, the study of the relations between languages and their users. and Beyond, New Series 35). Amsterdam--Philadelphia: John Benjamins John Benjamins Publishing Company is an independent academic publisher in social sciences and humanities with offices in Amsterdam (main office) and Philadelphia (North American office). It is especially noted for its publications in linguistics. . Kastovsky, Dieter (ed.) 1991 Historical English syntax. Berlin: Mouton mouton lamb pelt made to resemble seal or beaver. de Gruyter. Kniezsa, Veronika 1991 "Prepositional phrases expressing adverbs of time from late Old English to early Middle English", in: Dieter Kastovsky (ed.), 422-436. Kurath, Hans--Sherman M. Kuhn (eds.) 1959 Middle English dictionary The Middle English Dictionary is a dictionary of Middle English published by the University of Michigan. It was "completed in 2001, has been described as 'the greatest achievement in medieval scholarship in America. . Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, city (1990 pop. 109,592), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich., on the Huron River; inc. 1851. It is a research and educational center, with a large number of government and industrial research and development firms, many in high-technology fields such as : The University of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries. Press. [MED] Lehmann, Winfred P.--Yakov Malkiel (eds.) 1982 Perspectives on historical linguistics historical linguistics n. (used with a sing. verb) The study of linguistic change over time in language or in a particular language or language family, sometimes including the reconstruction of unattested forms of earlier stages of a language. . (Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 24). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lindkvist, Karl G. 1978 AT versus ON, IN, BY: On the early history of spatial AT and certain primary ideas distinguishing AT from ON, IN, BY. (Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Studies in English. XLVIII). Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International. Lindstromberg, Seth 1998 English prepositions explained. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lundskaer-Nielsen, Tom 1993 Prepositions in Old and Middle English. Odense: Odense University Built in 1966, it has four faculties: Humanities, Social Sciences, Health Science and Natural Sciences. Approximately 800 researchers and 12,000 students (counting both undergraduates and postgraduates) are enrolled at SDU Odense. Press. Rauh, Gisa (ed.) 1991 Approaches to prepositions. Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Simpson, John A.--Edmund S. C. Weiner 1989 The Oxford English dictionary Oxford English Dictionary (OED) great multi-volume historical dictionary of English. [Br. Hist.: Caught in the Web of Words] See : Lexicography . (2nd edition). Oxford: The Clarendon Press. [OED OED abbr. Oxford English Dictionary Noun 1. OED - an unabridged dictionary constructed on historical principles O.E.D., Oxford English Dictionary ] Sandhagen, Hans 1965 Studies on the temporal senses of the prepositions AT, ON, IN, BY and FOR in Present-day English. Trelleborg: The author. Schwenter, Scott--Elizabeth C. Traugott 1995 "The semantic and pragmatic development of substitutive complex prepositions in English", in: Andreas H. Jucker (ed.), 243-273. Traugott, Elizabeth C. 1982 "From prepositional to textual tex·tu·al adj. Of, relating to, or conforming to a text. tex tu·al·ly adv. and
expressive meanings: Some semantic-pragmatic aspects of
grammaticalization", in: Winfred P. Lehmann--Yakov Malkiel (eds.),
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van Kemenade, Ans 1987 Syntactic Dealing with language rules (syntax). See syntax. case and morphological mor·phol·o·gy n. pl. mor·phol·o·gies 1. a. The branch of biology that deals with the form and structure of organisms without consideration of function. b. case in the history of English. Dordrecht: Foris Publications. Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia (ed.) 1993 The semantics semantics [Gr.,=significant] in general, the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or of prepositions. Berlin--New York: Mouton de Gruyter. |
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