The Legacy of Parsons: Career Counselors and Vocational Psychologists as Agents of Social Change.

The commitment to social change demonstrated by the founder of vocational psychology, Frank Parsons, continues in several areas of vocational psychology today, including individual career counseling, guidance work in the schools, career interventions with special populations, and vocational research. This article highlights ways in which career counselors and vocational psychologists have focused and can continue to focus their practice and research to improve the condition of society and to provide interventions that enhance the ability of all individuals to love and to work in a meaningful way.

The founder of vocational psychology, Frank Parsons, was an advocate for youth, women, the poor, and the disadvantaged and "taught the principles of cooperation, love of justice, and hatred of oppression and discrimination" (Davis, 1969, p. 23). Although Parsons died at a young age, his legacy continues in the work of many career counselors and vocational psychologists. The focus of this article is to highlight several areas of vocational research and intervention that emulate the social justice work of Parsons and to propose several lessons for career counselors and vocational psychologists from the work and life of Frank Parsons.

Social Justice

Social justice or social change work can be defined as actions that contribute to the advancement of society and advocate for equal access to resources for marginalized or less fortunate individuals in society. Herr and Niles (1998) suggested that although few career counselors conceive of their work as contributing to social change, many are involved in work that brings hope to the discouraged and has implications not only for individuals but also for institutions and public policy. They noted the following:

In this sense, for most of the last 100 years, whether or not it has been explicit, counseling and, in particular, career counseling and career guidance have become sociopolitical instruments, identified by legislation at the federal level, to deal with emerging social concerns such as equity and excellence in educational and occupational opportunities, unemployment, human capital development, persons with disabilities, child abuse, AIDS, teenage pregnancy, substance abuse, career decision making relative to the preparation for entrance into emerging skilled occupations, and the identification and encouragement of students with high academic potential to enter higher education in science and mathematics. (p. 121)

This focus on social justice through career interventions originated with the founder of vocational psychology, Frank Parsons. Parsons was a complex and, in some ways, contradictory man whose legacy of social action continues in several areas of vocational psychology today, including individual career counseling, guidance work in the schools, career interventions with special populations, and vocational research.

Social Justice Work

Individual Career Counseling

Parsons (1909) was an ardent advocate for individualized approaches to career counseling. He founded the first vocational guidance center (i.e., the Vocational Bureau) and provided counseling using the overarching principles of Light, Information, Inspiration, and Cooperation (Parsons, 1909). Spokane and Glickman (1994) operationalized these principles as follows: Light was defined as the insight gained about oneself Information included data collected about oneself and the world of work; Inspiration was equated with hope that encouraged confidence in career pursuits; and Cooperation involved the mobilization of resources to actualize one's career choice.

Although many would consider Parsons's greatest gift to career counseling the articulation of the primary tenets of the matching model of career development (i.e., understand yourself, learn about your environment, and use true reasoning to select an occupation from these data), Jones (1994) suggested that some of Parsons's principles of vocational interventions are congruent with more integrated approaches to career counseling being advanced today (Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Lucas, 1993; Zamostny, O'Brien, & Tomlinson, 2000). For example, Parsons advocated that the counselor not tell clients what direction to pursue but rather help clients make positive decisions for themselves. He also saw the need for counselors to communicate honestly with clients to enable them to learn how others perceive them and to remedy problems that might interfere with success on the job. Thus, Parsons's approach to career interventions was not limited to assessing clients with the hope of matching individuals and occupations, bec ause he also addressed the intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns that could affect career development.

Today, social justice work through individual career counseling extends beyond what Parsons dreamed early in the twentieth century. For example, Herr and Niles (1998) suggested that sensitivity to the multiple contexts of a career client's life is one way in which career counselors can contribute to social change. Specifically, career counselors should seek to understand how the problems that career clients face extend beyond intrapersonal difficulties and are influenced by interpersonal and environmental influences (Cook, Heppner, & O'Brien, in press). An understanding of how some environments present barriers to academic and vocational achievement can aid career counselors in assisting clients to anticipate and negotiate barriers to success. Thus, career counselors, in individual work with clients, can be agents of social change by conceptualizing clients holistically, using more integrated models of career counseling, being cognizant of multicultural issues, identifying environmental barriers, and using no ntraditional interventions.

Guidance in the Schools

Parsons was passionate about education and believed education to be the key to social change (Parsons, 1894). He was a pioneer in organizing the Breadwinners' Institute, which provided an introduction to college for people who could not afford to attend college. Parsons was also the first to plan a program to integrate vocational guidance into school curricula, and he authored the first training program for counselors and teachers on vocational guidance (Davis, 1969). "As a laborer, engineer, teacher, lawyer, traveler, and social reformer Parsons brought into the schools a program of direction for young people which was the result of his pioneer thinking" (Davis, 1969, p. viii).

Parsons's work in this area is reflected in recent advances in the school-to-work movement (Worthington & Juntunen, 1997). Researchers and practitioners involved in the school-to-work transition, like Parsons, are providing skills and training in school settings that emulate Parsons's focus on education and vocational training as essential to escape poverty and achieve vocational success. Recently, two vocational journals, The Career Development Quarterly and The Counseling Psychologist, highlighted the work of theorists and researchers in the school-to-work movement. Most notably, Worthington and Juntunen persuasively argued that counseling psychologists have yet to contribute significantly to the school-to-work transition movement. They provided specific recommendations for how vocational psychologists can bridge the gap between knowledge of theory and the development of interventions to advance this social change movement. For example, they suggested that advances are needed in the areas of developing theo ry, researching diverse populations, interprofessional collaboration, transforming vocational interventions, training career counselors, and publishing research that furthers knowledge regarding successfully negotiating the school-to-work transition.

Blustein, Phillips, Jobin-Davis, Finkelberg, and Roarke (1997) contributed to the school-to-work movement by investigating the experiences of 45 young adults who had navigated school-to-work transitions to determine the individual and contextual factors that contribute to work-based outcomes, including job satisfaction and congruence. Several of the propositions they advanced uncannily reflect many of the principles proposed by Parsons early in the twentieth century: (a) the importance of exploring and knowing oneself, (b) the necessity of an active stance toward vocational development (Parsons was quoted as comparing the importance of actively planning one's future with needing to organize one's finances; Davis, 1969), and (c) obtaining assistance from active and caring guidance counselors. Along these lines, Herr and Niles (1998) proposed that the school-to-work movement provides an ideal environment for career counselors to effect social change. For example, not only can career counselors assist individual s in finding appropriate jobs after graduation from high school, but they also can dialogue with community members and employers to link graduates with necessary resources and consult with organizations regarding effective on-the-job training programs to facilitate the transition from school to work (Herr & Niles, 1998).

Fouad (1997) provided a notable example of social action in the school-to-work movement when she described her efforts to develop school-to-work programs for underserved youth in an urban area. Fouad (1997) implemented two career development interventions (one for middle school students and the other targeting high school students) with assistance from teachers, community business leaders, and graduate students. She reported on the successes and challenges that emerged from these programs, and she highlighted the contextual factors such as poverty and safety issues that affect the vocational development of children in inner city schools. Fouad (1997), like Parsons, argued for educational reform and echoed the need for career counselors and vocational psychologists to share their knowledge and expertise with schools while acknowledging their limits and being open to learning from school personnel. Fortunately, the systematic integration of guidance activities in schools has been pioneered by Gysbers (1997), wh o provided an exceptional model of a comprehensive guidance program with outcome data to suggest effectiveness with youth in Missouri schools. In evaluating guidance programs, Gysbers called for continued research to evaluate the outcomes of vocational interventions and to inform the development of career programs with young people.

Vocational Interventions With Special Populations

As the founder of the first organized system of vocational guidance, Parsons provided a model of a "vocational bureau" that provided information and inspiration at no charge to individuals who lacked resources and direction in their lives. Many of the individuals with whom Parsons worked were immigrants who had little access to educational and vocational advancement. Through his work with adults, Parsons identified the importance of working with young people to identify their vocational interests, and he even suggested that 1 year of intervention early on was equal to 2 years of interventions later in life (Davis, 1969). Parsons also modeled the importance of theory in developing interventions, and he advocated for evaluation of the interventions used in vocational guidance. Historical lore has it that the evaluations of Parsons's individual counseling reaped praises that few programs could emulate; several of his clients indicated that the hour spent in guidance with Parsons was the most important hour of th eir life (Brewer, 1942). Although this level of effectiveness may seem impossible to attain, vocational psychologists can continue Parsons's social justice work in this area by developing and evaluating theory-based interventions to assist individuals in at-risk environments with career development concerns.

One promising example of Parsons's vision can be found in an interuniversity team of professors, practitioners, and students that developed a career exploration program with students in at-risk environments (O'Brien et al., 2000; O'Brien, Dukstein, Jackson, Tomlinson, & Kamatuka, 1999). The work of this team represents a series of studies in which vocational interventions were developed based on theory and research, evaluated empirically, and then revised to improve the efficacy of the intervention.

This approach was consistent with Parsons's focus on the importance of theoretically derived interventions. This research program was first implemented with Upward Bound students, a group of high school students who were at risk for academic and vocational underachievement (O'Brien et al., 2000). The career exploration intervention was designed to strengthen confidence in pursuing math- and science-related careers, enhance self-understanding, and increase the number of careers considered. The results of the empirical evaluation suggested moderate increases in confidence related to investigating, selecting, and implementing a career choice but indicated no changes in self-understanding or number of career choices. These findings led the researchers to intervene at younger ages because many of the high school participants had already decided on a career choice and did not seem open to alternative possibilities.

Thus, a team of students and professors developed a revised career exploration intervention for sixth-grade students based on theoretical propositions and research findings. The goals of this program were to enhance confidence in (a) planning for careers, (b) learning about oneself, and (c) succeeding in math and science careers. Moreover, the team sought to increase the number of career options considered by the students and the congruence between their interests and career choices. Finally, students were assisted in developing a positive support network among peers and career experts. The team conducted this program and collected data over several summers. The results were promising in that students who received the career intervention demonstrated enhanced career decision-making confidence, considered a greater number of careers, and selected careers that were congruent with their interests (O'Brien et al., 1999). The outcome of the program is perhaps best noted by quoting one of its recent graduates, an 1 1-year-old boy who stated, "Before this program, I only planned on being an NBA champion. But I learned that my interests and values match other careers, and now I think that I could be a photographer, a teacher, or even a lawyer." Providing students with viable career choices is hypothesized to increase motivation for completing school and for pursuing postsecondary education (O'Brien et al., 1999), two goals that seem to be consistent with the vision articulated by Parsons.

Vocational Research

In addition to program evaluation, researchers can contribute to the continuation of Parsons's social justice legacy. Many examples of such work exist in vocational psychology today. For example, the following researchers have advanced knowledge about the career development of people of color: Betz and Fitzgerald, 1995; Bingham and Ward, 1995; Fouad, 1995; Fouad and Bingham, 1995; Helms and Cook, 1999; Gysbers, Heppner, and Johnston, 1998; and Leong, 1995. Likewise, researchers and theorists have made significant strides in explicating models of women's career development (Betz, 1994; Cook et al., in press; Fassinger, 1985, 1990; O'Brien & Fassinger, 1993; Rainey & Borders, 1997; Richie et al., 1997), and in describing the complexity of vocational choice and achievement for women. The following sources represent important work in this area to date: Betz, 1994; Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987; Cook, 1993; Fitzgerald, Fassinger, and Betz, 1995; Gysbers et al., 1998; Phillips and Imhoff, 1997; and Walsh and Osipow, 19 94.

Advances in the vocational psychology of women are a particularly salient example for this article, given that Parsons was a vocal advocate for women's right to vote and believed in the importance of education and training for both women and men. One area of current research shows much promise in continuing Parsons's legacy. Recent research has begun to focus on the career and educational development of Mexican American adolescent girls (Flores & O'Brien, in press; McWhirter, Hackett, & Bandelos, 1998). A small number of Mexican American individuals (6.5%) graduate from college (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996), and Mexican American women are less likely to graduate from college than their male counterparts (Ortiz, 1995; Tinajero, Gonzalez, & Dick, 1991). Both Flores and McWhirter (with their colleagues) have applied complex statistical analyses to the study of the career development of Mexican American girls. They focused on how barriers and support influence the career choices of these young women. In addit ion, they have begun to identify the importance of career self-efficacy in the vocational paths of Mexican American girls. This line of research not only continues in the Parsonian tradition but also shows much promise for developing interventions to assist a subset of the population to achieve their academic and vocational promise.

Lessons Learned

Clearly, career counselors and vocational researchers have continued the rich tradition of social justice work begun by our founder, Frank Parsons. A review of Parsons's work and life suggests several lessons that may advance the work of vocational psychology as career counselors and researchers move into the twenty-first century.

Conduct Research and Publish Your Findings

Parsons was a brilliant student and a prolific writer. His academic prowess was unequaled as he graduated at the top of his class from Cornell University and received the highest marks received on law exams in 12 years. He wrote more than 14 books and more than 100 journal articles. Because of his commitment to publishing, his work continues to influence the lives of many career clients, school children, counselors, and researchers.

Regarding social justice work, this lesson to publish one's findings seems particularly important for practitioners who develop interventions for individuals who may be at risk for vocational underachievement. Parsons would advocate for the evaluation of these programs to allow for the implementation of the most effective strategies to enhance vocational potential and the publication of the results to forward research and inform vocational interventions. Thus, career counselors and vocational psychologists should attend to the importance of working together to develop, implement, and evaluate vocational programs and then publish the results to inform the work of others.

Do Not Give Up Until You Find Your Niche

As Spokane and Glickman (1994) aptly noted, Parsons also struggled with his career choice. After graduating at age 18 from Cornell University at the top of his class in civil engineering, he was employed in his field and later lost his job and became a laborer. He also worked as a teacher in the public schools and later became a private practice lawyer. At one point, Parsons wrote legal textbooks and obtained a teaching position at Boston University Law School. He provided a good example of successful career change when he resigned from a lucrative but personally unsatisfying job (writing texts) to focus on providing for the needs of the less fortunate and educating individuals about his scholarly work.

Many individuals may seek training as career counselors and vocational psychologists after having been employed in lucrative careers or having enjoyed other scholarly pursuits. Their exodus from the private sector could enhance our work because these individuals often bring with them many skills and talents that could be used to better the condition of individuals in society. Moreover, career counselors and vocational researchers who have yet to become involved in social justice may, if they are interested, ask how their work might contribute to making a difference in the lives of others.

Teach Passionately and Effectively

Heppner, O'Brien, Hinkleman, and Flores (1996) noted that disparaging remarks by faculty about career counseling were identified by participants as having the most negative influences on their perceptions about career counseling, whereas working with career clients positively influenced attitudes about career counseling. Those who train career counselors and counseling psychologists might do well to emulate Parsons in the area of teaching, because exceptional teaching can advance social justice work by educating students and instilling excitement about making a difference.

Parsons was an outstanding and popular teacher, as noted by Davis (1969) who cited the chair of the school committee stating that Parsons "has done a great work for us. He not only possesses ability in a large degree, but has rare tact to make his pupils enthusiastic in their work and thereby secure grand results" (p. 19). Davis also indicated that "Parsons was rated among the best and most popular on the faculty [at Kansas State College]. He was described as challenging, interesting, and fair" (p. 24). Finally, and perhaps most telling, Davis indicated that Parsons received a letter stating, "Frankly your influence in a classroom, on the campus, in chapel and other meetings, was of great good. You had a way of getting hold of the hearts of the students that made them fairly love you and the subject you presented. One of the students said, 'Prof. Parsons has a great intellect, the heart of a woman and the methods of a scientist"' (pp. 27-28). The movement away from interest in career counseling and social ju stice work (as noted by Heppner et al., 1996) might be halted if teachers demonstrated the ability and passion apparently evidenced by our founder.

In addition, professors are in a unique position to serve as role models for involvement in social justice work. For example, to help alleviate domestic violence, professors may volunteer in shelters for battered women and their children or serve on the board of directors for these community agencies. Recently, professors (C. Brown and K. M. O'Brien) at two universities involved their students in providing assistance to domestic violence victims. Doctoral students at the University of Missouri at Kansas City provided 9 weeks of career counseling in a group setting to domestic violence survivors, an intervention of critical importance given that many battered women remain in abusive relationships because of economic dependency and perceived inability to support themselves and their children. Alternatively, students in a doctoral seminar at the University of Maryland spent one afternoon a week running groups (e.g., creative self-expression, self-esteem enhancement) for children and women who were affected by d omestic violence. These experiences assisted students in gaining an appreciation for the individual struggles and societal obstacles faced by battered women and their children and also deepened their commitment to bring about change in their communities.

Challenge Societal Ills and Work for Social Reform

Perhaps Parsons serves as our greatest role model in the area of challenging the current norms of society that result in the proliferation of both extreme wealth and devastating poverty. He challenged inequity, called for moral actions, and ardently argued for a regulated economy through shared responsibility and ownership (which he called "mutualism"). Parsons confronted the wealthy on their accumulation of wealth without attention to morals and the welfare of others. He advocated for a minimum wage and organized a national campaign to institute an 8-hour workday (Mann, 1950). So few individuals go beyond the doors of their offices to confront the social ills of the time. Parsons provided a powerful example of tireless advocacy on behalf of the less fortunate, a stance that is consistent with Gysbers's (1997) rally for career counselors and vocational psychologists to be active in the legislative process. To facilitate this involvement, training programs should provide opportunities for students to accompany faculty or previous graduates as they lobby for legislative reform related to counseling or educational issues.

Lest it seem that I am suggesting Parsons was without fault, Mann (1950) wrote of a complex man who in his individual interactions served as a model for respectful interactions with all people. However, in his writings, Parsons demonstrated a belief in restricting immigration, having immigrants pass literacy tests before relocation, and making immigrants wait for 21 years prior to acquiring citizenship (Mann, 1950). Mann indicated that Parsons individually was "above all prejudice and bigotry," (p. 489) and yet as a social engineer, he thought that genetics played an important role in personal characteristics, and he contributed to the belief of Anglo Saxon superiority. Mann suggested that Parsons wrote these ideas before he began to work in the slums and to advocate for social change. It is possible that Parsons continued to embrace these beliefs throughout his life. Alternatively, Parsons may serve as a role model for how career counselors and vocational psychologists may be open to personal and ideological change as a result of social justice work.

Have Fun-Life Is Short

One of the saddest lessons that Parsons bequeathed to career counselors and vocational psychologists may be to acknowledge physical limitations and to attempt to live balanced lives. According to Mann (1950), Parsons may have worked himself to an early death as he "labored incessantly" (p. 472) and continued to work after a serious illness and warnings to slow down from his physician. Davis (1969) concurred with Mann when he indicated that Parsons did not know how to play. Despite the tremendous amount of work that remains to be done in vocational psychology, career counselors and counseling psychologists may best be able to effect social change over time if they live healthy and balanced lives.

Conclusion

To conclude, at the 1999 biennial conference of the Society for Vocational Psychology, Savickas argued that it is time for career counselors and vocational psychologists to reclaim their identity as social workers. Savickas referred to Parsons's work and challenged counselors and psychologists to move beyond their offices to reinvent community, improve people's lives, and become involved in social and political activity. This article has highlighted ways in which career counselors and vocational psychologists have focused and can continue to focus their practice and research to improve the condition of society and to provide interventions that enhance the ability of all individuals to love and to work in a meaningful way. "Throughout his entire life Parsons possessed an unusual compassion for the poor, the underprivileged, and those who had no direction in their lives" (Davis, 1969, p. 34). Career counselors and vocational psychologists are encouraged to extend Parsons's compassion and vision through research and practice that enhance people's lives and contribute to the creation of a more just society.

Karen M. O'Brien is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Maryland at College Park. This article is based on a paper presented in a symposium at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Boston, 1999, chaired by Nadya A. Fouad and titled Frank Parsons: Contributions to Vocational Psychology 90 Years Later. The author acknowledges the invaluable assistance of David A. Petersen. Correspondence regarding this article should he sent to Karen M. O'Brien, Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (e-mail: [e-mail]).

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