The Journey Through College of Seven Gifted Females: Influences on Their Career Related Decisions.

As adult workers, gifted women are sometimes underachievers and under represented in high prestige and high income careers (Arnold, 1993; Callahan, 1991; Reis, 1987; Reis & Callahan, 1989). While many of the historical influences which contribute to these findings are changing, barriers still exist. The purpose of this study was to explore whether career related decisions of gifted females who are still involved in the educational process are hampered by influences that limit options.

Today, deficits in academic preparation are less likely to be barriers since reforms are standardizing college preparatory curricula (Reis & Callahan, 1989). Deficits in appropriate mathematics and science preparation as a limiting factor for many career options are also changing (Callahan, 1991), as are stereotypical views regarding career options for both women and men. However, women continue to pursue mathematics and science courses of study less frequently (Callahan, 1991). Moreover, when they do pursue mathematics and science courses of study, attrition occurs (Arnold, 1993).

This study is grounded in the theoretical and research bases associated with developmental career theories, gender role expectations, and giftedness. Career development is viewed as a lifelong process that includes stages, the process of career maturity, and the development of one's self-concept as it relates to career (Zunker, 1998). According to Super (1990), a major career development theorist, career related decisions result from an ongoing learning process that includes the interaction of multiple influences across the lifespan. In essence, career development involves an integration of those marketable aspects of the self and the opportunities and requirements of the world of work in such a way that engagement in the world of work leads to personal satisfaction. In career development, which parallels personal development, individuals are viewed as "socialized organizer[s]" of experiences who then choose occupations which are consistent with their self concepts (Herr & Cramer, 1996, p. 232).

In addition, stages of career development are associated with various tasks attempted by individuals in an effort to become who they want to become; this developmental process is applicable to both sexes (Super, 1990). Readiness for making career related decisions in adolescence is influenced by factors such as: planning for the future; career exploration; information about careers, jobs, and the world of work; the knowledge of and ability to use decision making skills; and knowledge related to specific areas of interest. According to Super's (1990) theory, "the occupational level attained ... is determined by the individual's parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, traits, and self concepts), and career maturity and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed" (p. 207).

Numerous studies indicated that gender role expectations influence career related decisions (Jepsen, 1992; Niles, 1997; Walsh & Srsic, 1995). Angrist and Almquist (1993) suggested that college women use a contingency approach to career aspirations to keep options open, which centers on plans and expectations regarding marriage and family. According to Hollinger (1991), the most limiting and pervasive barrier was the "sex role socialization's impact on the child's [female's] developing self-belief system" (p. 136). Supported by a number of researchers, Hollinger (1991) argued that by adolescence, young gifted females have learned to

   fear success, avoid mathematics and the sciences, refuse to assert
   themselves, lower their expectations for academic and career achievement,
   attribute their successes, especially in nontraditional areas such as math,
   to diligence, effort and acquired skill rather than ability, and perceive
   themselves as lacking the agenetic attributes (attributes central to the
   protection, maintenance, and enhancement of the individual self) essential
   for controlling their own destinies. (p. 136)

Academically talented college students making career decisions tend "to experience frustration with multipotentiality, to delay career decision making, to change majors more often than average students," and were more likely to choose vocational majors (Kerr & Erb, 1991, p. 309). College students understood more about their long-term goals, yet appeared to not know how to achieve them. The shortage of research on gifted college students (Ford & Harris, 1995) supported a need for this study.

For students who seek a college education as a means to realize their career aspirations, selecting an appropriate choice of major is necessary. Though that decision does not have to be made upon entrance to college, most students need to make that decision by their junior year. Thus, a more accurate view of influences on career aspirations might be Provided if the inquiry addressed naturally occurring influences over time. This study addressed several research questions about those influences.

Research Questions

The research question guiding this study was: What were the background and educational factors that might have, over time, influenced the career related decisions of gifted college females whose precollege education occurred primarily in rural schools?

To address this question several specific questions were developed.

* What background factors from the gifted females' pre-college years might have influenced post-secondary decisions and what were their future plans as high school graduates? What were their initial post-secondary decisions in terms of college choice, major, and career aspirations?

* Were there any changes in their decisions related to college choice and major, career aspirations, and future plans, at two years after high school graduation? If so, what did they identify as influences?

* What was their current status regarding their college education and future plans at five years after high school graduation?

Method

Participants

The seven gifted females in this study lived in rural areas of southeastern Georgia during their elementary and secondary school years. Our definition of rural was based on population characteristics reported in The Georgia County Guide (Bachtel & Boatright, 1993) using 1990 Census definitions. According to the census descriptions, six of the seven participants were from counties where zero percent of the population lived in urbanized areas, 37 percent or 15,854 individuals resided outside urbanized areas, and 63 percent or 27,271 individuals lived in rural areas. The seventh participant was from a county where zero percent lived in urbanized areas, 57 percent or 22,637 individuals resided outside urbanized areas and 43 percent or 16,893 individuals stayed in rural areas. According to the Census definition, rural means "territory, population and housing units not classified as urban," and urban comprises "all territory, population and housing units in urbanized and in places of 2,500 or more persons outside urbanized areas" (Bachtel & Boatright, 1993, p. 193). For the two counties respectively, ethnic bases included 72% and 58% Euro-American, 26% and 41% African American, and about 1% each for other races and Hispanic for both counties.

Participants in this study, which spanned five years, were identified from two sources: those who participated in a public school program for gifted in a rural county and those admitted as freshmen to an honors program at a mid-size university. They were identified as gifted during their elementary school years based on the criteria set by the state of Georgia and their school systems for such an identification, and they attended public schools. Four were European Americans and three were African Americans. Pseudonyms were chosen or assigned for each participant.

Data Sources and Data Collection

Data sources included individual case studies developed in the first phase of this study which focused on pre-college influences. This data collection was conducted during the summer and early fall after graduation from high school. A questionnaire and in-depth structured interview were used to create the case studies. The questionnaire gathered data on nine demographic variables and had 10 questions on educational background, including anticipated college of attendance, major career aspirations, and future plans. The structured face-to-face interview had 22 questions which explored elementary through high school academics, extracurricular activities, achievements, role identity beliefs, and future plans. Full case study reports of the first phase of data collection for three of the participants were reported in Battle, Grant, and Heggoy (1995).

The second data collection was conducted two years later, using a 13 item, open ended questionnaire which focused on influences and current status of institution attendance, classification, major, career aspirations, and future plans. Telephone interviews clarified written responses. The self-report questionnaire was mailed to the participants' various college addresses during the spring of their second year when they were expected to be completing core requirements and choosing their major. The third phase of data collection at five years after high school graduation was conducted by telephone or in person to determine current major, degree completion status, as well as changes in marital status. Both the second and third phases of data collection were follow-ups to the first phase. The purpose was to determine any changes and consistencies with pre-college influences.

Data Analysis

Transcribed interviews and questionnaire responses of participants were integrated and synthesized into case histories for each of the three phases of data collection. A time-series approach was used for case studies; this approach is a pattern-matching technique where data collected at specified times from different cases were compared and patterns emerged (Yin, 1989). Thus, data were coded to determine consistent themes, to identify influences, and to search for patterns and trends across time. Reliability for this study was enhanced by multiple researchers, multiple data sources, and the use of structured interviews and questionnaires; the validity of this study was enhanced by time-series analysis and peer researcher debriefing (Asher & Moon, 1993).

Results: Time-Series Case Studies

The individual case studies summarize changes over time and the articulated influences on decisions made by these gifted females over the five years after high school graduation. The case studies are presented within three time frames: pre-college influences and initial post-secondary decisions, two years after high school graduation, and five years after high school graduation. Patterns and trends are presented as summaries at the end of each time frame. Tables provide an overview for the first two data collections.

Pre-college Influences and Initial Post-secondary Decisions

The following results addressed the first specific questions: What background factors from the gifted females' pre-college years might have influenced post-secondary decisions and what were their future plans as high school graduates? What were their initial post-secondary decisions in terms of college choice, major, and career aspirations? All of the participants were 18 years old as they entered college and had completed the college preparatory curriculum in three different high schools. A summary of the pre-college influences is present in Table 1.

Table 1. Precollege Influences

                                         Academic
                 Favorite High        Least Favorite
Participant     School Subject      High School Subject

   Rose             English         Mathematics/Science

 Cassandra       Speech/Drama           Mathematics

    Tye             English              Calculus

    Ann       Mathematics/History         English

    Kay         Ethnic Studies            History

   Lisa           Economics/            Mathematics
                  Government

   Beth       World History/Music        Calculus

                                                Extracurricular
                 Significant Influences     Consistent Involvement
Participant      People / Experiences        with Leadership Role

   Rose          Parents,      Gifted         Competitive Literary
                  Friend       Summer              Activities
                               Science           (State winner)
                               Program
                              (females)

 Cassandra        Mother      Volunteer        Competitive public
                              tutoring              speaking
                                with             (State winner)
                              children

    Tye          Parents        None              Cheerleading
                              indicated     (Captain; All-American)

    Ann          Parents        None              Tri-athlete
                              indicated     (State Qualifier; Coach)

    Kay          Parents        None                  None
                              indicated
   Lisa          Parents,     Part-time          Business Club
                Employer,       jobs              (President;
               High School                   State Representative;
               Business Ed.                      Award Winner)
                 Teacher

   Beth          Parents,      Sunday        Music/Band Activities
                 Friends       School         (1st Chair; Section
                              teaching              Leader)

Identified as gifted in the first grade, Rose, a European American, participated in the program for the gifted through eighth grade. While in elementary school, she was involved in numerous activities that included dance and music lessons, church, band, quiz bowl, essay and speaking contests. Although her least favorite subject in high school was mathematics, "science was always a challenge, a prestigious thing [for her] to conquer. It was beautiful [for her] because it was so difficult." Rose, an honor graduate, received several awards in English, her favorite subject in high school; she participated in literary meets, contributed to a literary magazine, did extemporaneous speaking, took the more academically challenging courses, and started taking college courses in the joint enrollment program in eleventh grade. Rose enrolled at a Northeastern private women's college in the Northeast which was known for its curriculum and preparation of students entering medical professions. This college was ranked within the top 25 liberal arts colleges by U. S. News ("National Liberal Arts Colleges," 1998). Rose entered college with scholarship assistance and had a major in chemistry based on the career related aspiration of becoming a medical doctor.

Her father had a terminal degree and was a public school administrator, while her mother, who had a master's degree, taught foreign languages at the secondary level. As an intelligent, deliberate thinker, this young woman talked about her future plans that included a career in women's health care and contributing to society. Her future plans also included having a partner and comfortable lifestyle or if single, seeking personal rewards from her career.

Cassandra, an African American, was identified as gifted in third grade and participated in the gifted program through eighth grade. Since the program for the gifted was housed at another school in the county, she was transported to the program from her school once a week. In elementary school she was involved in cheerleading and 4-H activities. Her favorite subjects were speech and drama in high school and her least favorite was mathematics. She was actively involved in student council, mathematics and science teams, history and Beta clubs, yearbook (editor) and newspaper organizations, earned a letter in basketball, and was a state winner in a public speaking competition. She also tutored students involved in an after school community program. After completing high school, Cassandra attended an out-of-state college, also ranked within the top 25 liberal arts colleges according to U. S. News ("National Liberal Arts Colleges," 1998). This college was located in the South. She received academic scholarship assistance and majored in history. Her career aspirations included becoming a secondary teacher, eventually teaching on the college level, and becoming a politician.

Her mother was a retired elementary teacher and her father was a brick mason and contractor. Cassandra described herself as outspoken, assertive, and willing to take chances regardless of gender or racial heritage. At 10 years after the completion of high school, she expected to have completed a master's degree and be working on a doctorate in preparation for teaching history or political science at the college level. She did not express any plans regarding marriage and family.

Tye, an African American, was identified as gifted in the third grade and participated in the program for the gifted through eighth grade. In elementary school, she was active in a number of activities including dance, gymnastics, and swimming as well as Girl Scouts. Tye took the advanced science courses in high school where her favorite subject was English and her least favorite subject was calculus. She indicated that her senior English and advanced placement biology courses were the only ones for which she really studied. In high school, she participated in cheerleading, beauty pageants, academic decathlon, youth leadership group, and instructed youth in gymnastics and cheerleading. Tye attended a state public coed institution in her home state. She received academic scholarship assistance. As a freshman, she majored in engineering. Her career aspirations included biomedical or genetic engineering.

Both of her parents had terminal degrees, and her father was a scientist. She described herself as "independent, strong-willed, and ambitious" knowing that she had the "ability to achieve and just had to work for what she wants." Tye's future plans included graduate school, wanting an occupation that she enjoyed, completing graduate school with a terminal degree, and being married with children. In five years after the completion of high school, she planned to be in graduate school and in a relationship with a significant other if not married. After 10 years, she "definitely" planned to be married and at least thinking about children. A graduate degree would have also been completed, and she wanted to have a good job.

Ann, a European American, entered the program for the gifted in third grade and continued through eighth grade. She was actively involved in several sports, dance, gymnastics, recreation department and church sponsored activities while in elementary school. She achieved honor graduate status in high school where her least favorite course was English and mathematics and history were favorite subjects. Ann was a tri-athlete award winner in high school who participated in track, basketball and softball; she also was involved in the Y-club and her church's youth group. She coached younger students in sports and kept statistics for several teams. Ann attended a state public coed institution in her home state and majored in recreation as a freshman. Her career aspirations included coaching, teaching, or medicine.

Her father was a college administrator who had a terminal degree and was professor of management, while her mother taught mathematics at the college level. Although unsure about her career, Ann expected to be in or out of graduate school five years after high school and planned to stay involved in physical activity but not be competitive. She expected to live in a rural community that was close to home because "in small towns people know and support each other." In 10 years, she hoped to be well into her career and have a family. Although she would probably work and didn't want to be a "housekeeper," she preferred to stay at home with her children when they were young. Ann described herself as an independent, flexible person who enjoyed helping others.

Entering the program for the gifted in third grade and continuing through eighth grade, Kay, an African American, won several science fair awards in elementary school. She also participated in dance and music lessons, softball, choir, and Girl Scouts. Frequently on the honor roll in high school, Kay's favorite subject was ethnic studies and her least favorite was history. She was heavily involved in activities both in the community, especially those church and school sponsored. Kay played the violin and cello, sang in a choir, and participated in numerous clubs that included the Beta club, Science club, Y-club and Afro-American club. She was actively involved in Model United Nations winning several awards at her extracurricular involvements. Kay entered college on an academic scholarship at an out-of-state, historically Black institution that was nationally known for its preparation of students who enter medical professions. Her first choice of major was biology, supporting her career aspiration of becoming a medical doctor with a career specialty in psychiatry.

Kay's parents were medical professionals. Her father was a physician and her mother was a nurse. In five years after having completed high school, she expected to be in medical school. Kay also planned to be a practicing psychiatrist in 10 years with a practice located in a big city. She expected to live in a suburban area, marry, and have a large family. Kay planned on being able to spend more time with her children when they were young and then increasing her time at work as her children grew older; she expected to share home responsibilities with her spouse. In describing herself, Kay said she had the "abilities and capabilities" to work for what she wanted and did not expect "to be given something" because she was a female.

Lisa, a European American, entered the program for the gifted in fourth grade and continued through eighth grade. In elementary school, she was actively involved in 4-H and served as district president in seventh grade which resulted in speaking in front of 2000 people. Lisa's favorite subjects in high school were government and economics; her least favorite was mathematics. While working part-time in retail and being involved at the high school in a number of clubs, she excelled in those related to business, rising by her senior year to be state president and national secretary for the Future Business Leaders of America. Needing to work for financial reasons, Lisa finished the college preparatory curriculum without putting forth much effort, choosing to take business courses but not the advanced placement or upper level mathematics ones. Lisa entered a state public coed university, declared a major in marketing and had a special interest in international business. She had career aspirations of becoming a retail entrepreneur.

Both of her parents were involved in business; her father was a college graduate. Five years after high school, Lisa said, "knowing me growing up in my hometown, I'll probably be married. But I don t want to be, I want to be out on my own and doing my own thing for a while." In 10 years, she expected to have a family and shared responsibilities of the home with her spouse. She was unsure about how she would balance a career and a family. Being aware of some of the risks of being out of the work place for a long time, she thought she might work part-time until her children were three to five years old. Lisa described herself as confident, very outspoken, and an achiever; she liked reaching her goals. Her choices were influenced by strong women role models at home, school, and work.

Beth, a European American, entered the program for the gifted in the fifth grade and was actively involved in band, church sponsored activities-Sunday school and choir. Her favorite subjects in high school were world history and music while her least favorite was calculus. Taking advanced courses through high school was easy for Beth. She started joint enrollment in an area college in eleventh grade. Her extracurricular involvement focused around her interest and talent in music. She was the flute section leader in her high school band, taught Sunday school, and was also a member of the Beta club, Key club, and Students Against Drunk Drivers. Beth entered a state university on an academic scholarship from a competitive honors program. As a freshman she selected early childhood education as her major. Her career aspiration was to be an elementary teacher.

Beth's mother was a secretary and high school graduate, while her father earned an associate degree and was a physician's assistant. She described herself as independent and goal oriented. Beth saw herself married five years after high school graduation, sharing responsibilities with a spouse. She hoped to have a family after she had worked as a teacher.

In summarizing the patterns and trends, these females completed the college preparatory curricula in their respective high schools, were admitted to colleges and universities as full time students, and selected majors during their freshman year. They attended public and private colleges and universities in four different states; two enrolled in what could be described as prestigious colleges, based on their national ranks. Most received scholarship assistance and had been involved in some of the more academically demanding aspects of their high school curriculum. They actively participated in extracurricular activities from elementary school through high school, much of which was sponsored by their schools or churches. They differed in terms of most and least favorite high school subjects although mathematics/calculus was mentioned by five of them as their least favorite subjects. Parents who had dual careers were influential, though in different ways. These females were confident about their abilities and expected to work most of their adult lives. Some had specific career aspirations; most were looking towards graduate school. Most had expectations regarding marriage and family; most frequently expressed a partnership relationship where responsibilities at home were shared.

Two Years After High School Graduation

The results presented here address the second set of research questions: Were there any changes in their decisions related to college choice and major, their career aspirations, and future plans two years after high school graduation? If so, what did they identify as influences? None of the participants had participated in any interventions related to career decision-making. A summary of the results of two years after high school graduation is included in Table 2.

Table 2. Two Years After High School Graduation: Status of Attendance, Major, Influences, and Future Plans

Participant                     College

                     Attendance              Major
               Type     Classification       Year
   Rose       Private                      Freshman
              Female        Junior

              Public                        2 years
               Co-ed                         later

 Cassandra    Private     Sophomore        Freshman
               Co-ed

                                            2 years
                                             later

    Tye       Public      Sophomore        Freshman
               Co-ed
                                            2 years
                                             later

    Ann       Public                       Freshman
               Co-ed      Sophomore
                                            2 years
                                             later

    Kay       Private     Sophomore        Freshman
               Co-ed
                                            2 years
                                             later

   Lisa       Public      Sophomore        Freshman
               Co-ed
                                         2 years later

   Beth       Public      Sophomore        Freshman
               Co-ed
                                            2 years
                                             later

Participant
                                 Background and * Articulated
                    Major        Influences on College Majors

                    Area
   Rose           Chemistry      Father: Terminal degree

                                 * Dislike for courses
                 Studio Art      * Medical diagnosis

                                 Mother: Retired teacher
 Cassandra         History       High School: History related
                                 activities

                   English       * Volunteer/tutor with
                                 adolescents

    Tye          Engineering     Parents: Terminal degrees
                                 Father: Scientist
                                 High School: A P Biology
                  Biology
                                 * Dislike for courses
                 Recreation      Father: Terminal degree &
    Ann                          management professor
                  Business       Summer Jobs:Business

                   Biology       Parents: Medical professionals
    Kay                          High School: Biology teacher
                 Psychology      * Interest in subject

                International    Parents: Business owners
                  Business       High School: Business
   Lisa                          teacher
                   Public
                  Relations      * Dislike for classes

                    Early        Sunday school teaching
                  Childhood      High School: Music/band
   Beth
                 Special Ed.     * Enjoys children and LD more

Participant                                 Future Plans
                               Precollege

                 Education       Career        Family      Education

   Rose           Terminal      Medical        Married
                   Degree        Doctor       or single    Undecided

                               Secondary
 Cassandra       Bachelor's     or post-        None        Master's
                               secondary                     level
                               teacher or
                               Politician

    Tye           Terminal     Biomedical    Partnership    Terminal
                   Degree      or Genetic     Marriage/      Degree
                              Engineering     Children

                  Graduate    Coaching or    Partnership
    Ann            School     Teaching or     Marriage/     Graduate
                                Medicine      Children       School

                  Terminal     Psychiatry    Partnership    Terminal
    Kay            Degree                     Marriage/      Degree
                                              Children

                 Bachelor's      Retail       Married/       Bache-
   Lisa                       Entrepreneur    Children       lor's

                  Graduate     Elementary    Partnership    Terminal
   Beth            School       Teacher       Marriage/      Degree
                                              Children

Participant
                 2 years later

                    Career        Family

   Rose
                  Undecided        None

                   Teaching
                  English in
 Cassandra       private high   Partnership
                  school or      Marriage/
                    Write        Children
                  adolescent
                  fiction or
                    Radio
                 broadcasting

    Tye           Undecided     Partnership
                                 Marriage/
                                 Children

    Ann           Undecided       Married
                                 or single

                  Psychiatry    Partnership
    Kay                          Marriage/
                                 Children

                    Public         None
   Lisa            Relations
                   Director

                 Special Ed.    Partnership
   Beth            Teacher       Marriage/
                     (LD)        Children

Rose's father, a friend, and an older pre-medicine student encouraged her to consider attending a college outside of the South. At the end of her second year, Rose was classified as a junior and had changed majors several times-to chemistry, biology, communication sciences and disorders, and then studio art, respectively. She was no longer planning to become a medical doctor; her career aspiration was uncertain. After completing three semesters at the prestigious college, she transferred to the land grant university in her home state. She indicated that her current major, studio art, was good for "today ... [she had been] very dissatisfied with the perceived rewards and the courses required as a pre-medicine chemistry student." She continued to excel in the humanities in college, whereas the sciences in high school and college were a "struggle." Rose had always felt that "writing, reading literature and enjoying that, was not something worthy of praise." She was looking for new direction.

In five years Rose hoped to be: stable, a college graduate, and doing something that made her happy and for which she received recognition. Rose expected to have a multifaceted life, but not necessarily have a lot of money. In 10 years, she had aspirations of being a parent but was more aware of the uncertainty that kind of projection held. The effects of medication for a recent medical diagnosis influenced Rose's views and aspirations.

Cassandra's mother, a retired elementary teacher, encouraged her to enter the education field. Other influences on her career aspiration to become a teacher were her experiences as a tutor in high school to elementary students in an afterschool program and in college she did volunteer academic tutoring for adolescents. Cassandra, a sophomore, changed her major to English after the first semester of her freshman year, her major two years later. She said, "a major in English would provide me with more opportunities than a history major." Her desire to write adolescent literature was a strong influence on changing her major. Cassandra said, she "would like to teach and eventually go into radio broadcasting," a new career aspiration for her.

Cassandra stated that "I would either like to work with the Admissions Office" of a college or "teach for about two years at a private high school." Projecting five years ahead, she said, "At this particular time, I'm still not certain what direction I want to take, but I feel that I will be in graduate school." In 10 years, "depending on which avenue I take, I will either be teaching at a college or pursuing a career in broadcasting. Whichever I choose, I plan to focus a little of my time doing some writing." Cassandra still expressed no plans regarding marriage and family.

Tye selected her institution because she received scholarship assistance and it was close to home. The university was also less expensive in comparison to other colleges. Her interest in engineering was influenced by her advanced placement biology course in high school. During her sophomore year, Tye changed her major to biology; the enjoyment of the natural sciences heavily influenced this change. She considered medicine, although Tye thought that maybe she would change majors totally because she did not" like chemistry or anything too mathematical ... [and] didn't enjoy the classes in the engineering major." Her career aspirations were now uncertain. Family members were influential. Tye said, "My parents have been the biggest influence on my current aspirations, even though I am uncertain about what I want to pursue ... I know what kind of life I would like to lead and the kind of education I will have to have ... I know that I would like to get a terminal degree. In 10 years hopefully, I'll be married, maybe have one child, be in a stable position ... have a secure, enjoyable job, a home, and money saved."

Ann's choice of a college was influenced by her desire to "get a good education" from an institution not too far from home and with which she was familiar and felt comfortable. As a sophomore two years later, she changed her major to business at the end of her second year in order to have a major with a wider range of opportunities. Her choice of major was influenced by her interests and previous courses. Being undecided about career aspirations, she hoped that this major would open up opportunities and introduce her to something that she would like to do.

Ann expected to attend graduate school immediately after graduation. In five years, she foresaw adjusting to her first job and learning about the world of work. In 10 years, Ann anticipated being married and focusing her energy on her family.

Kay's choice of major was influenced by her high school teacher and her plans to attend medical school. Her parents, both medical professionals, were also influences on her plans and her institution selection. She wanted to attend a small institution that was historically Black. Two years later, Kay had changed her major to psychology, based on her childhood fascination with the human mind. Her career aspiration, becoming a psychiatrist, remained the same. She said "my parents wanted me to go to medical school, so I decided to major in psychology/pre-medicine."

Immediately after graduation, Kay expected to enter medical school. In 10 years, she anticipated being a practicing psychiatrist, married with at least two children and be in a dual career partnership relationship.

Lisa's career aspirations and first choice of major, marketing, were influenced by her business related experiences in high school and college catalog course descriptions. She said "I had a lot of retail store management, advertising, marketing ... And ... I knew I would do well and enjoy doing that." Two years later, her major was public relations, influenced by her firsthand experiences as a part-time clerk for five years, her past experiences in extracurricular activities, her college friends in that field, and consistency with her aspirations and interests because she "didn't like business classes." Her future plans included a position in a large firm in public relations. At two years later, her five and 10 year plans did not include graduate school or marriage and family plans.

Beth "always wanted to be a teacher." Interest in teaching was nurtured through her active involvement in music, having become an accomplished musician at an early age when she participated in school and community bands, and her experiences teaching Sunday school classes throughout her school years. In both environments, Beth developed and honed her leadership skills and teaching potential. After two years, Beth had changed her major to special education because she felt "the problems of the learning disabled" would offer her "more of a challenge." Her career aspiration at this point had changed from that of an elementary teacher to a teacher of students with learning disabilities.

"New adventures, getting a job, finding a place to live" was the way Beth described life after graduation. She looked forward to this time as "scary, fun, and confusing." In five years, Beth saw herself as married, "learning the ropes of the job," and "working hard." In 10 years, she hoped to further her education, earn master's and doctoral degrees, and "hopefully, have a kid." Beth was in her second year in college before she mentioned any family related expectations.

Thus, two years after entering college, they were still enrolled in college and generally in their initial institutions. They were progressing as expected in college, most were classified as sophomores. Even though the participants selected a major during their freshman year, after two years, all had declared a different major. Some of these gifted females became more focused by refining their previous major decisions which maintained their career aspiration, while others changed their choice of major which led to uncertain career aspirations. Their future plans, however, remained basically the same as did their expectations regarding marriage and family.

Results: Summary at Five Years After High School Graduation

The results presented here address the research question: What was their current status regarding their college education and future plans five years after high school graduation? The presentation of these results are based on those consistent themes that emerged from similarities in the situations of the participants.

By the time she began her third year, Rose was no longer enrolled in college, due in part to the diagnosis of a medical condition. She was single and had worked part-time in a university town since she dropped out of college. With her medical diagnosis stabilized, Rose returned to continue her college education in the fifth year. Lisa was no longer enrolled in college. She had not returned for her third year, was employed full time in a large city in her home state, and was single.

Beth and Kay completed their degrees in four years in the majors declared at two years after high school graduation. Beth married during the summer after graduation, was employed as a teacher and attending graduate school; while Kay, who was single, was applying to health professions schools and working in her home town.

Cassandra transferred to a home state university for her third year, still unsure of her career aspirations. In her third year, she chose a familiar major that was related to her major declared at two years, secondary English education. She graduated at the end of her fifth year, accepted a teaching position in an area high school, and was single.

As for Tye and Ann, who had changed their majors and whose career aspirations were unclear at two years, situations were also different. Tye sought career counseling early in her third year because she needed a major, having completed the core curriculum requirements, and changed to interior design. She completed that degree program at five years. She was accepted into a graduate program in her field, had scholarship assistance, had a job offer, and was single. She chose to take a full-time position in a major city because of the value of work experience in her field. For Tye, interior design was an exciting career option that she would not have considered without career counseling. She said, "If I had not learned about interior design, I would still be somewhere in the sciences." Ann changed her major to education in her third year, completed her teacher-training degree program in four years, married the summer after graduation, and started graduate school at a large southern out-of-state university.

Discussion

It is interesting that even though the participants were identified as gifted in elementary school and participated in a program for the gifted through the eighth grade, they made academic course decisions in high school that might be considered inconsistent with their giftedness. Some of these gifted females did not take advantage of all of the more academically challenging opportunities available to them as high school students, although they completed the college preparatory curricula in high school. They were admitted to colleges of their choice, entering the fall after graduation, with most receiving academic scholarships. Even though the extent of their involvement in the most academically challenging courses in high school varied, the limitations often associated with inadequate academic preparation opportunities (Reis & Callahan, 1989) were not evident.

As noted in previous research (Callahan, 1991), parents continued to be strong influences. The other apparent strong influence was extracurricular involvement for those whose career aspirations remained stable over time. Even though their majors changed, some benefited from experiences in their K-12 school years in extracurricular activities in which the tasks and skills closely matched their career aspirations. An unanswered question was: "Did their experiences create a level of comfort that might have inhibited further career exploration that could have provided the opportunity to consider unknown career options?"

A haphazard approach seemed to underlie the search for answers for those participants who changed their majors and then experienced career indecision. Furthermore, they offered very limited information regarding their views of their individual strengths or of other individual characteristics as being influences on their career aspirations; however, they did not appear to be limited by the characteristics associated with adolescent gifted females as expressed by Hollinger (1991), except for the agenetic attributes. A possible limitation of this study might be a lack of specific questions through which the participants could have shared self-knowledge; even though they had a number of opportunities to respond to open ended inquiries over time.

Initially, even though some expressed interest in mathematics and science-based careers (non-traditional for women), attrition (Arnold, 1993) from these career aspirations, that occurred within two years, was consistent with least favorite high school subjects, and led to uncertain career aspirations. A major influence on attrition from these non-traditional careers was a "dislike" for course work.

Another influence on the career aspirations of these gifted females was their expectations regarding marriage and family, an aspect of future orientation. Regarding these expectations, it appeared that they did not make contingency career aspiration decisions (Angrist & Almquist, 1993). The influences they shared included the ability to be successful, the expectation of working in personally satisfying careers, plans to attend graduate school, and expectations of involvement in marital relationships where responsibilities would be shared. Coming from dual career parents and expressed as high school graduates, these expectations remained stable throughout college. Their conceptions of their future life style aspirations, a career planning factor that addresses the individual's orientation toward job, leisure, family, and home (Zunker, 1998), seemed to guide them as they made career related decisions. Indications of their values were embedded in their lifestyle conceptions which is consistent with Arnold (1993), who argued that the influences of values and role expectations were more influential than ability and academic performance on the educational and vocational achievements of talented college females. Kerr and Erb (1991) concluded that talented college students seemed to understand more about their future goals than they knew about how to reach them. In addition, Super (1990) indicated that work salience or the relative importance of work in life was more important than gender or class. These gifted college females were in search of potentially satisfying careers in dual career relationships. Underlying their search process seemed to be an attempt to answer the question, "What can I do to get where I want to go?" However, they did not indicate an awareness that they could seek information or assistance that would have confirmed their career aspirations or alleviated their career indecision.

In general, the influences on career related decisions for these gifted females who spent their school years in rural settings were consistent with those identified by Vermeulen and Minor (1998) for rural women: parents and families of origin, gender role beliefs regarding marriage and motherhood, expectations of work, meeting others' expectations, sense of empowerment, conditions of work, and personal values. In addition, their experiences as they relate to schools in rural settings are consistent with Cross and Dixon (1998) who concluded that many of the experiences of gifted students in rural schools are similar to those in urban settings. They argued that even though there may be limitations in academic resources, students in rural settings may also have more opportunities for involvement in co-curricular activities as well as the advantages of a close knit community or family.

References such as "close to home" and the consistency with which marriage and family plans were expressed throughout the five years of this study provides support for a values' conflict said to be faced by rural gifted females (Kleinsasser, 1988). This values' conflict is between the expectations to pursue academic and professional opportunities associated with being gifted and the expectation within rural communities that females have primary responsibility for upholding community and family life. The pursuit of academic and professional opportunities would require leaving the "home" rural community.

Identity formation was not the focus of this study. However, since identity formation is clearly related to self-concept and since several characteristics that are evident in the patterns of influence on their career decisions are consistent with Josselson's (1987) identity formation in women, the following observations are offered. Josselson's longitudinal study on the development of identity in women indicated that the patterns that were associated with their identity status as college graduates tended to be consistent with how these women approached and experienced their careers. Presented as the most important developmental task for women, identity influences women's choices, priorities, and decisions; adolescence is the stage in life where identity issues are central. Josselson described four pathways to identity. The characteristics she described have similarities to the influences articulated by and the experiences of the participants in this study. One identity status described by Josselson is foreclosure. Women in this status are referred to as "purveyors of the heritage" (p. 42); they know from an early age what they want to do and they pursue those goals without questioning the basic messages from their childhood; their identity is based on identification with families of origin. These family oriented females are unlikely to risk disappointing their parents and do not experience an identity crisis. Women with this identity status have high self esteem, tend to be very successful in their chosen careers, are likely to complete graduate work, but work will not be as primary in their lives as their family relationships. Becoming a teacher is one career option that is consistent with this identity status (Josselson, 1996).

Though not quite as evident, another identity status with characteristics similar to those shared in this study is referred to by Josselson (1987) as "identity achievements" (p. 70); these "pavers of the way" (p. 70) engage in a process whereby they critically examine the identity assigned to them by their parents and create an identity in their own way after considering who they were in their past and who they want to become. They may do so silently and internally, focusing on feeling pride in themselves rather than that which comes from others as verification of their self worth. Their relationships with others, including spouses, are more likely based on partnership needs. Regarding work, these self confident women are interested in how their work allows them to meet their own expectations; thus, they are not defined by their work and can change jobs and/or fields. Basically, these changes will be predicated on dislike of some aspect of their current situation; traditional definitions of success per se are not important. Flexibility and change are more likely to be constants in their lives as they pursue their hallmark as identity achieved females who have the ability to balance work, relationships, and interests. These women tended to be employed full time in the professions or as managers (Josselson, 1996).

A few similarities were found with the other two identity status' described by Josselson (1996). Searchers, who lived life closer to their emotions, had multiple changes in their college majors, and when they lost interest in one area, they hoped to find better in another. Searchers could put career questions on hold, searching for something they could be good at and unsure of how important career or perhaps family was to them. Drifter's were descried as living in the present; they lived their adult lives "doing something" and being unsure if it was what they wanted (Josselson, 1996, p. 143).

In some ways, the journey of these gifted females through college was not unlike those of other college students today. Their experiences included: transfers between institutions, multiple changes in choice of major, career indecision, dropping and stopping out before the third year, and taking more than four years to complete degree programs. These gifted women experienced some of the same risks that can be associated with not attaining a college degree (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991) as well as experiences associated with talented college students (Kerr & Erb, 1991). Even though these young women persisted, another unanswered question was: "How could they have been better prepared to make career related decisions?"

Long, Sowa, and Niles (1995) found that career-decided college seniors had clear educational goals and an awareness of the world of work and self that enabled career choices, while undecided college students reported unclear educational goals and had less awareness of the world of work and self. Kerr (1990) indicated that with college gifted females, intervention became "even more critical" to maintain high career aspirations (p. 106). The influences on career aspirations as articulated by these gifted females were both positive and negative and included parents and others, past experiences, and dislike for course work; however, they articulated few connections between those influences and characteristics associated with self, outside of ability. Their decisions and their searches for options were limited to those careers and to identification or problem solving processes to which they had been exposed and they did not indicate that they knew how to facilitate their decision making process. The results in this study are consistent with those of Eisenhart (1985) who conducted a study on natural decision making for college women regarding their career choices. She concluded that women use a rational and purposeful process that considered only a few career alternatives, based on limited information from immediate experiences and associates. Only those few choices are considered as they progress through formal education starting at the elementary level. Once a choice is made, significant change is unlikely. Though seeking personally satisfying careers, their choices were justified on limited criteria, either making money or helping others.

As noted by Herr and Cramer (1996), "career development proceeds-smoothly, jaggedly, positively, negatively-whether or not career guidance or career education exists. As such, career development is not an intervention but the object of an intervention" (p. 32). Clearly, their career development was not smooth. The developmental approach, as presented by Super (1990), provides a view of career development from which individuals have the possibility of engaging in processes that lead to making intentional career related decisions across the life-span. Consistent with the career development theories, the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (NOICC) (1992) developed sets of competencies that can be used to develop career guidance programs from elementary school through college that when achieved by individuals are indications of appropriate career development. These extensive sets of competencies are presented in the three broad categories of self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning such that the specific competencies become more sophisticated with growth.

The participants in this study did demonstrate some of the competencies that would be expected of them due to their stage of development; however, there did appear to be some weaknesses. These weaknesses seemed most obvious for those competencies that would reflect the ability to articulate the relationship between aspects of self and career aspirations. For high school and college students, Zunker (1998) argued that "teaching decision making and planning skills involves guiding students through a series of steps as they formulate career goals. Refined self-knowledge--including interests, abilities, values, and occupational knowledge--is prerequisite to effective career decision making and planning" (p. 212). He also suggested that generally, college students would benefit from assistance in analyzing their college and non-college experiences and integrating that information into their career decisions.

Selected NOICC competencies associated with high school students and adults that the participants did not clearly voluntarily demonstrate are provided. By the end of high school, specific competencies include the ability to "demonstrate an understanding of how individual characteristics relate to achieving personal, social, educational, and career goals" (NOICC, 1992, p. 51); "demonstrate use of a range of resources" (p. 52); "describe school and community resources to explore educational and occupational choices" (p. 52); "describe the advantages and problems of nontraditional occupations' (p. 53); and "demonstrate occupational skills developed through volunteer experiences and part-time employment" (p. 53). Competencies associated with adults would include the capability to: "identify skills, abilities, interests, experiences, values, and personality traits and their influence on career decisions" (p. 55); "describe how educational achievements and life experiences relate to occupational opportunities" (p. 55); "describe the personal criteria for making decisions about education, training, and career goals" (p. 56); "describe potential consequences of decisions" (p. 56); and "describe the importance of work as it affects values and life style" (p. 56). The achievement of adulthood competencies would be fostered throughout the college years. The NOICC competencies also address understanding changing male and female roles as well as the impact of work on individual and family life.

The studies reviewed here which had a focus on how women are influenced by naturally occurring processes and experiences suggest that those naturally occurring processes and experiences may not increase the likelihood that women with high potential will make intentional career related decisions that could lead them into higher prestige and higher income careers. Perhaps as Herr and Cramer (1996) indicated, educators need to embrace the idea that effective career decision-making can be fostered intentionally through career guidance interventions. Thus, though the results of this study cannot be generalized, interventions designed to teach how to move from uncertainty or how to confirm their career related decisions, in the contexts of self-knowledge and future, may have facilitated making career related decisions for these gifted females. In addition, career guidance interventions may be more effective if they begin during the elementary school years. The major finding from this study was that these gifted females were willing, yet not adequately prepared, to make career related decisions. Therefore, deficits in career development may be a major barrier facing gifted females today.

The questionnaires and interview protocols are available from the authors upon request. This research was partially funded by the Faculty Research Subcommittee of Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA. A paper presentation, based on this research, was presented in April 1999 at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada.

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Manuscript submitted December, 1998.

Revision accepted May, 1999.

Dale F. Grant is an Associate Professor of Counseling and Higher Education in the Department of Educational Leadership, Technology, and Human Development, College of Education at Georgia Southern University, Statesboro. She conducts research in areas of career counseling and issues facing special populations and diversity. Dorothy A. Battle is an Associate Professor of Educational Psychology in the Department of Curriculum, Foundations, and Research, College of Education, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro. Her research topics are giftedness, teaching, and diversity. Sennove J. Heggoy is a Professor of Special Education in the Department of Educational Leadership, Technology, and Human Development, College of Education at Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, and Director for the Regents Center for Learning Disabilities. Her research examines alternative diagnoses of college students with learning disabilities, and special interests in the gifted and females with disabilities.